Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

How are Adventure Education Program Outcomes Achieved?: A review of the literature

  • Refereed Article
  • Published:
Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This article provides an overview of the existing literature on how program outcomes are achieved. It is divided into categories of program characteristics that the literature suggests contribute to program outcomes, including: the physical environment, activities, processing, the group, instructors, and the participant. Outcomes referred to throughout the article are those generally associated with adventure education programs, such as increases in participants’ self-concepts and interpersonal skills. The reviewed literature indicates that the current understanding of how adventure education program outcomes are achieved is based largely on theory, rather than on empirical research. Further research could provide adventure educators with a better understanding of why programs work and enable them to tailor programs to increase their effectiveness. Before quantitative methods can become useful in an examination of how outcomes are achieved, it seems necessary to use qualitative methods to inductively discover all the program characteristics that are possibly affecting the outcomes experienced by participants.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aguiar, J. D. (1986). Analysis of successful adventure leaders. (Doctoral Dissertation, Boston University, 1986). Dissertation Abstracts International, 47 (02), 462–A.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bacon, S. (1983). The Conscious Use of Metaphor in Outward Bound. Denver: Colorado Outward Bound School.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bacon, S. B. (1987). The evolution of the Outward Bound process. Greenwich, CT: Outward Bound.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartley, N. L., & Williams, D. R. (1988). Gender issues in outdoor adventure programming: An outdoor leadership model exploring gender, personality, soft skills training and leadership style of outdoor leaders. The Bradford Papers Annual, 3, 1–9. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bisson, C. (1998, November). The effects of sequencing adventure activities on the development of group cohesion. Doctoral Dissertation presented at the 26th Annual Association for Experiential Education International Conference, Lake Tahoe, NV.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brackenreg, M., Luckner, J., & Pinch, K. (1994). Essential skills for processing adventure experiences. Journal of Experiential Education, 17 (3), 45–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, S., McPhee, P., & Proudman, B. (1995). What is experiential education? In K. Warren, M. Sakofs, & J. S. Hunt, Jr. (Eds.), The theory of experiential education (pp. 235-247). Boulder, CO: Association for Experiential Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conrad, D., & Hedin, D. (1981, Fall). National assessment of experiential education: Summary and implications. Journal of Experiential Education, 6–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dewey, J. (1938/1966). Experience and Education. New York, NY: Touchstone.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyson, B. P. (1995). Students’ voices in two alternative elementary physical education programs. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 14, 394–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estes, C., & Ewert, A. (1988). Enhancing mixed-gender programming: Considerations for experiential educators. The Bradford Papers Annual, 3, 10–19. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ewert, A. W. (1983). Outdoor adventure and self-concept: A research analysis. Eugene, OR: Center of Leisure Studies, University of Oregon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ewert, A. W. (1989). Outdoor adventure pursuits: Foundations, models, and theories. Columbus, OH: Publishing Horizons, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plor, R. (1991). An introduction to research and evaluation in practice. Journal of Experiential Education, 14 (1), 36–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gass, M. A. (1993). The evolution of processing adventure therapy experiences. In M. A. Gass (Ed.) Adventure therapy: Therapeutic applications of adventure programming (pp. 219–229). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gass, M. A. (1995). Adventure family therapy: An innovative approach answering the question of lasting change with adjudicated youth? Monograph on Youth in the 1990s, 4, 103–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillet, D. P., Thomas, G. P., Smok, R. L., & McLaughlin, T. F. (1991). The effects of wilderness camping and hiking on the self-concept and the environmental attitudes and knowledge of twelfth graders. Journal of Environmental Education, 22 (3), 33–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillis, H. L., & Thomsen, D. (1996, January). A research update of adventure therapy (1992–1995): Challenge activities and ropes courses, wilderness expeditions, and residential camping programs. In Coalition for Education in the Outdoors Research Symposium Proceedings. Bradford Woods, IN: Indiana University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hattie, J., Marsh, H. W., Neill, J. T., & Richards, G. E. (1997). Adventure education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting difference. Review of Educational Research, 67 (1), 43–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hendy, C. M. (1975). Outward Bound and personality: 16 PF profiles of instructors and IPSATIVE changes in male and female students 16–19 years of age (Doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, 1975). Dissertation Abstracts International, 36, 4353–A.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins, D. (1982), Changes in self-concept as the result of adventure training. CAHFER Journal, July-August, 9–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins, D., & Putnam, R. (1993). Personal growth through adventure. London, England: David Fulton Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iso-Ahola, S. E., & Graefe, A. R. (1988). Perceived competence as a mediator of the relationship between high risk sports participation and self-esteem. Journal of Leisure Research, 21 (1), 32–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiewa, J, (1994).. In E. Cole, E. Erdman, & E. D. Rothblum (Eds.), Wilderness therapy for women: The power of adventure (pp. 29–41). Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimball, R. O., & Bacon, S. B. (1993). The wilderness challenge model. In M. A. Gass (Ed.), Adventure therapy: Therapeutic applications of adventure programming (pp. 11–41). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb, D. G. (1991). Meaningful methods: Evaluation without the crunch. The Journal of Experiential Education, 14 (1), 40–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luckner, J. L., & Nadler, R. S. (1997). Processing the experience: Strategies to enhance and generalize learning. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H.W., Richards, G. E., & Barnes, J. (1986). Multidimensional self-concepts: The effect of participation in an Outward Bound program. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50 (1), 195–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, B. B., & Wenger, M. S. (1998). Athletes and adventure education: An empirical investigation. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 29, 243–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadler, R. S. (1993). Therapeutic process of change. In M. A. Gass (Ed.) Adventure therapy: Therapeutic applications of adventure programming (pp. 57–69). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phipps, M. L., & Claxton, D. B. (1997). An investigation into instructor effectiveness. Journal of Experiential Education, 20 (1), 40–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Priest, S., & Gass, M.A. (1997). Effective leadership in adventure programming (pp. 178–184). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riggins, R. D. (1985). The Colorado Outward Bound school: Biographical and personality factors contributing to the leadership effectiveness of instructors. Journal of Environmental Education, 16 (3), 6–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riggins, R. D. (1986). Effective leadership in adventure-based education: Setting directions for future research. Journal of Environmental Education, 18 (1), 1–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, S. E. (1985). The effect of course length on self-concept changes in participants of the Minnesota Outward Bound school junior program. (Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1985). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (10), 3699–A.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schoel, J., Prouty, D., & Radcliffe, P. (1988). Islands of healing: A guide to adventure based counseling. Hamilton, MA: Project Adventure, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, V. & Golins, G. (1976). The exploration of the Outward Bound process. Denver, CO: Colorado Outward Bound School.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warner, A. (1984). How to creatively evaluate programs. Journal of Experiential Education, 7 (2), 38–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Witman, J. P. (1995). Characteristics of adventure programs valued by adolescents in treatment. Monograph on Youth in the 1990s, 4, 127–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, D. E. (1978). Analyzing adventure education: Behavior patterns, relating objectives, sequencing activities, and discovering student perspective. (Doctoral Dissertation, Boston University School of Education, 1978). Dissertation Abstracts International, 39 (05), 2735–A.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. #305-2115 Cypress Street, V6M 3J3, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

    Marcia D. McKenzie (instructor at Outward Bound Western Canada and a doctoral student in education at Simon Fraser University)

Authors
  1. Marcia D. McKenzie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marcia D. McKenzie.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

McKenzie, M.D. How are Adventure Education Program Outcomes Achieved?: A review of the literature. Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education 5, 19–27 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03400637

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03400637

Search

Navigation