Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Effect of induced plastic strain on the porosity of PA12 printed through selective laser sintering studied by X-ray computed micro-tomography

  • ORIGINAL ARTICLE
  • Published:
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

3D printing is a widespread technology in different fields, such as medicine, construction, ergonomics, and the transportation industry. Its diffusion is related to the ability of this technique to produce complex parts without needing for assembly of different components or post-processing. However, the quality of the parts produced by additive manufacturing could be affected by the fabrication process, thus leading to the development of different kinds of defects such as porosity or inclusions. Understanding the role played by these defects and promoting strategies that could help reduce their occurrence represents a key point to allow using 3D printing for structural applications. In this work, 3D printed parts have been subjected to porosity characterization by using experimental tests on dogbone samples subjected to plastic deformation. In particular, multiple loading-unloading steps have been carried out and, at the end of each step, the X-ray computed micro-tomography (μ-CT) has been employed for the identification of fabrication defects and for analyzing the crack growth mechanism that occurs after quasi-static loading tests. Sample analysis reveals the presence of a high porosity that could be attributed to the fabrication process. After the sample’s plastic deformation, it was found an increase in both porosity percentage and pore dimensions. Moreover, the crack propagation mechanism is affected by porosity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

All authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article.

References

  1. Leal R, Barreiros FM, Alves L, Romeiro F, Vasco JC, Santos M et al (2017) Additive manufacturing tooling for the automotive industry. Int J Adv Manufacturing Technol 9(92):1671–1676. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0239-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Froes F, Boyer R (2019) Additive manufacturing for the aerospace industry. First edition ed. Elsevier

  3. Wang YC, Chen T, Yeh YL (2019) Advanced 3D printing technologies for the aircraft industry: a fuzzy systematic approach for assessing the critical factors. Int J Adva Manufacturing Technol 105 (10):4059–4069

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Tarancón A, Esposito V (2021) 3D printing for energy applications. Wiley online library

  5. Maniruzzaman M (2019) 3D and 4D printing in biomedical applications: process engineering and additive manufacturing. Wiley

  6. Pan Y, Zhang Y, Zhang D, Song Y (2021) 3D printing in construction: state of the art and applications. Int J Adv Manufacturing Technol 5(115):1329–1348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-07213-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Kermavnar T, Shannon A, O’Sullivan LW (2021) The application of additive manufacturing / 3D printing in ergonomic aspects of product design: a systematic review. Appl Ergonomics 11:97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2021.103528

    Google Scholar 

  8. Godoi FC, Prakash S, Bhandari BR (2016) 3d printing technologies applied for food design: status and prospects. J Food Eng 6(179):44–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2016.01.025

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Morano C, Bruno L, Pagnotta L, Alfano M (2018) Analysis of crack trapping in 3D printed bio-inspired structural interfaces. Procedia Structural Integrity 12:561–566. AIAS 2018 international conference on stress analysis. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prostr.2018.11.063

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Frascio M, Mandolfino C, Moroni F, Jilich M, Lagazzo A, Pizzorni M et al (2021) Appraisal of surface preparation in adhesive bonding of additive manufactured substrates. Int J Adhesion Adhesives 106:102802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2020.102802

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. ASTM (2015) Additive manufacturing-general principles-Terminology ISO/ASTM 52900:2015. ASTM international. Available from: www.iso.orgwww.astm.org

  12. Sola A, Nouri A (2019) Microstructural porosity in additive manufacturing: the formation and detection of pores in metal parts fabricated by powder bed fusion. J Adv Manufacturing Process 7:1. https://doi.org/10.1002/amp2.10021

    Google Scholar 

  13. Dizon JRC, Espera AH, Chen Q, Advincula RC (2018) Mechanical characterization of 3D-printed polymers. Addit Manuf 3(20):44–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2017.12.002

    Google Scholar 

  14. Saâdaoui M, Khaldoun F, Adrien J, Reveron H, Chevalier J (2020) X-ray tomography of additive-manufactured zirconia: processing defects – strength relations. J European Ceramic Society 7(40):3200–3207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2019.04.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Balla VK, Kate KH, Satyavolu J, Singh P, Tadimeti JGD (2019) Additive manufacturing of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites: processing and prospects. Composites Part B Eng 10:174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.106956

    Google Scholar 

  16. Papon EA, Haque A, Mulani SB (2019) Process optimization and stochastic modeling of void contents and mechanical properties in additively manufactured composites. Composites Part B Eng 11(177):107325. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COMPOSITESB.2019.107325

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Jagadeesh P, Puttegowda M, Rangappa SM, Alexey K, Gorbatyuk S, Khan A et al (2022) A comprehensive review on 3D printing advancements in polymer composites: technologies, materials, and applications. Int J Adv Manufacturing Technol:1–43

  18. Caulfield B, McHugh PE, Lohfeld S (2007) Dependence of mechanical properties of polyamide components on build parameters in the SLS process. J Materials Process Technol 2(182):477–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2006.09.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Du Plessis A (2019) Effects of process parameters on porosity in laser powder bed fusion revealed by X-ray tomography. Addit Manuf 12:30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.100871

    Google Scholar 

  20. Moussaoui K, Rubio W, Mousseigne M, Sultan T, Rezai F (2018) Effects of selective laser melting additive manufacturing parameters of Inconel 718 on porosity, microstructure and mechanical properties. Materials Sci Eng A 9(735):182–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.08.037

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Pavan M, Faes M, Strobbe D, Van Hooreweder B, Craeghs T, Moens D et al (2017) On the influence of inter-layer time and energy density on selected critical-to-quality properties of PA12 parts produced via laser sintering. Polym Testing 03(61):386–395

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Vock S, Klöden B, Kirchner A, Weißgärber T, Kieback B (2019) Powders for powder bed fusion: a review. Progress Additive Manufacturing 4(4):383–397

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Zhang Z, Yao XX, Ge P (2020) Phase-field-model-based analysis of the effects of powder particle on porosities and densities in selective laser sintering additive manufacturing. Int J Mech Sci 1:166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2019.105230

    Google Scholar 

  24. Malekipour E, El-Mounayri H (2018) Common defects and contributing parameters in powder bed fusion AM process and their classification for online monitoring and control: a review. Int J Adv Manufacturing Technol 03:95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-1172-6

    Google Scholar 

  25. Koç E, Zeybek S, Kısasöz Bö, Çalışkan Cİ, Bulduk ME (2022) Estimation of surface roughness in selective laser sintering using computational models. Int J Adv Manufacturing Technol:1– 13

  26. Sachdeva A, Singh S, Sharma VS (2013) Investigating surface roughness of parts produced by SLS process. Int J Adv Manufacturing Technol 64(9):1505–1516

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Al-Maharma AY, Patil SP, Markert B (2020) Effects of porosity on the mechanical properties of additively manufactured components: a critical review. Materials Res Express 12:7. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/abcc5d

    Google Scholar 

  28. Kim FH, Moylan SP, Garboczi EJ, Slotwinski JA (2017) Investigation of pore structure in cobalt chrome additively manufactured parts using X-ray computed tomography and three-dimensional image analysis. Addit Manuf 10(17):23–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2017.06.011

    Google Scholar 

  29. Maskery I, Aboulkhair NT, Corfield MR, Tuck C, Clare AT, Leach RK et al (2016) Quantification and characterisation of porosity in selectively laser melted Al–Si10–Mg using X-ray computed tomography. Mater Charact 111:193–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2015.12.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Ghanekar AS, Crawford RH, Watson D (2003) Optimization of SLS process parameters using D-optimality. In: 2003 International solid freeform fabrication symposium

  31. Zarringhalam H, Hopkinson N, Kamperman N, De Vlieger J (2006) Effects of processing on microstructure and properties of SLS Nylon 12. Materials Sci Eng A 435:172–180

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Wegner A, Witt G (2012) Correlation of process parameters and part properties in laser sintering using response surface modeling. Phys Proc 39:480–490

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Wang X, Jiang M, Zhou Z, Gou J, Hui D (2017) 3D printing of polymer matrix composites: a review and prospective. Composites Part B Eng 110:442–458

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Liu W, Chen C, Shuai S, Zhao R, Liu L, Wang X et al (2020) Study of pore defect and mechanical properties in selective laser melted Ti6Al4V alloy based on X-ray computed tomography. Materials Sci Eng A 10:797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2020.139981

    Google Scholar 

  35. Pavan M, Craeghs T, Van Puyvelde P, Kruth JP, Dewulf W (2016) Understanding the link between process parameters, microstructure and mechanical properties of laser sintered pa12 parts through X-ray computed tomography. In: Procedia of the 2nd international conference on progress in additive manufacturing

  36. Wang X, Zhao L, Fuh JYH, Lee HP (2019) Effect of porosity on mechanical properties of 3d printed polymers: experiments and micromechanical modeling based on X-ray computed tomography analysis. Polymers, vol 11(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11071154

  37. Choren JA, Heinrich SM, Silver-Thorn MB (2013) Young’s modulus and volume porosity relationships for additive manufacturing applications. J Materials Sci 8(48):5103–5112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-013-7237-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Leuders S, Vollmer M, Brenne F, Tröster T, Niendorf T (2015) Fatigue strength prediction for titanium alloy TiAl6V4 manufactured by selective laser melting. Metallurgical Materials Trans A 46 (9):3816–3823

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Siddique S, Imran M, Rauer M, Kaloudis M, Wycisk E, Emmelmann C et al (2015) Computed tomography for characterization of fatigue performance of selective laser melted parts. Materials Design 06(83):661–669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.06.063

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Kasperovich G, Haubrich J, Gussone J, Requena G (2016) Correlation between porosity and processing parameters in TiAl6V4 produced by selective laser melting. Materials Design 9(105):160–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATDES.2016.05.070

    Google Scholar 

  41. Carlton HD, Haboub A, Gallegos GF, Parkinson DY, MacDowell AA (2016) Damage evolution and failure mechanisms in additively manufactured stainless steel. Materials Sci Eng A 651:406–414

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Du Plessis A, Sperling P, Beerlink A, Tshabalala L, Hoosain S, Mathe N et al (2018) Standard method for microCT-based additive manufacturing quality control 1: porosity analysis. MethodsX 1 (5):1102–1110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2018.09.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Flodberg G, Pettersson H, Yang L (2018) Pore analysis and mechanical performance of selective laser sintered objects. Addit Manuf 24:307–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.10.001

    Google Scholar 

  44. Brombal L, Donato S, Dreossi D, Arfelli F, Bonazza D, Contillo A et al (2018) Phase-contrast breast CT: the effect of propagation distance. Phys Med Bio 63(24):24NT03

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Stelitano S, Rullo A, Piredda L, Mecozzi E, Di Vito L, Agostino RG et al (2021) The deltah lab, a new multidisciplinary European facility to support the H2 distribution and storage economy. Appl Sci, vol 11(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/app11073272

  46. Ferraro M, Crocco MC, Mangini F, Jonard M, Sangiovanni F, Zitelli M et al (2022) X-ray computed μ-tomography for the characterization of optical fibers. Opt Mater Express 12 (11):4210–4222. https://doi.org/10.1364/OME.458951

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Donato P, Donato S, Barba L, Crisci G, Crocco M, Davoli M et al (2022) Influence of chemical composition and microvesiculation on the chromatic features of the obsidian of Sierra de las Navajas (Hidalgo, Mexico). Minerals 01(12):177. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12020177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. López Prat M, Agostino R, Ray Bandyopadhyay S, Carrascosa B, Crocco M, Luca R et al (2021) Architectural terracruda sculptures of the silk roads: new conservation insights through a diagnostic approach based on non-destructive X-ray micro-computed tomography. Studies Conservation 01:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/00393630.2020.1862605

    Google Scholar 

  49. Conte R, Filosa R, Formoso V, Gagliardi F, Agostino RG, Ambrogio G (2019) Analysis of extruded pins manufactured by friction stir forming for multi-material joining purposes. In: AIP conference proceedings, vol 2113. AIP publishing LLC, p 050026

  50. EOS (2001) PA2200 - Material data sheet. EOS GmbH

  51. ASTM (2022) D 638-00 standard test method for tensile properties of plastics 1. Available from: www.astm.org

  52. Feldkamp LA, Davis LC, Kress JW (1984) Practical cone-beam algorithm. J Optical Society Amer A 1(6):612–619

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Schindelin J, Arganda-Carreras I, Frise E, Kaynig V, Longair M, Pietzsch T et al (2012) Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis. Nat Methods 9(7):676–682

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Thompson R, Austin D, Wang C, Neville A, Lin L (2021) Low-frequency plasma activation of nylon 6. Appl Surface Sci 544:148929

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Alfano M, Morano C, Bruno L, Muzzupappa M, Pagnotta L (2018) Analysis of debonding in bio-inspired interfaces obtained by additive manufacturing. In: Procedia structural integrity. vol 8, pp 604–609, AIAS 2017 - 46th conference on stress analysis and mechanical engineering design, 6-9 Sept 2017, Pisa, Italy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prostr.2017.12.059

  56. Nizina T, Nizin D, Kanaeva N, Artamonov D (2021) Method for analyzing the kinetics of damage accumulation in the structure of polymer materials under tensile stresses. AIP Conf Proc 2371(1):020010. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0059899

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Dewulf W, Pavan M, Craeghs T, Kruth JP (2016) Using X-ray computed tomography to improve the porosity level of polyamide-12 laser sintered parts. Cirp Annals 65(1):205–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Stichel T, Frick T, Laumer T, Tenner F, Hausotte T, Merklein M et al (2018) A round robin study for selective laser sintering of polymers: back tracing of the pore morphology to the process parameters. J Materials Process Technol 252:537–545

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the @STAR laboratories, for providing equipment employed for experimental analysis.

Funding

The work has been funded by “Progetto STAR 2 – PIR01-00008”- Ministry of University and Research.

Author information

Author notes

    Authors and Affiliations

    1. Department of Mechanical, Energy and Management Engineering, University of Calabria, Via Pietro Bucci, Rende, 87036, CS, Italy

      Chiara Morano & Leonardo Pagnotta

    2. STAR Research Infrastructure, University of Calabria, Via Tito Flavio, Rende, 87036, CS, Italy

      Chiara Morano, Maria Caterina Crocco, Vincenzo Formoso & Leonardo Pagnotta

    3. Physics Department, University of Calabria, Via Pietro Bucci, Rende, 87036, CS, Italy

      Maria Caterina Crocco & Vincenzo Formoso

    4. Institute of Nanotechnology - Nanotec Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, University of Calabria, Via Pietro Bucci, Rende, 87036, CS, Italy

      Vincenzo Formoso

    Authors
    1. Chiara Morano
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    2. Maria Caterina Crocco
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    3. Vincenzo Formoso
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    4. Leonardo Pagnotta
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    Contributions

    All the authors contributed to the work design and conception. Experimental activity has been carried out by Chiara Morano and Maria Caterina Crocco and all the authors performed data measurement and analysis. Chiara Morano and Maria Caterina Crocco wrote the original draft. Vincenzo Formoso and Leonardo Pagnotta wrote, reviewed, and edited the manuscript. All authors provided critical feedback, helped with the analysis, and contributed to the final manuscript.

    Corresponding author

    Correspondence to Chiara Morano.

    Ethics declarations

    Ethics approval

    The authors declare that the work has not been submitted to any other journal. The submitted manuscript is original and has not been published elsewhere in any form or language.

    Consent to participate

    All authors declare their voluntary agreement to participate in this research work.

    Consent for publication

    All authors declare their voluntary agreement to publish this research work.

    Conflict of interest

    The authors declare no competing interests.

    Additional information

    Publisher’s note

    Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

    Chiara Morano and Maria Caterina Crocco equally contributed to this work.

    Rights and permissions

    Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

    Reprints and permissions

    About this article

    Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

    Cite this article

    Morano, C., Crocco, M.C., Formoso, V. et al. Effect of induced plastic strain on the porosity of PA12 printed through selective laser sintering studied by X-ray computed micro-tomography. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 125, 3229–3240 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-10791-2

    Download citation

    • Received:

    • Accepted:

    • Published:

    • Issue Date:

    • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-10791-2

    Keywords

    Search

    Navigation