Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

What Schools Need to Know About Fostering School Belonging: a Meta-analysis

  • Meta-Analysis
  • Published:
Educational Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Belonging is an essential aspect of psychological functioning. Schools offer unique opportunities to improve belonging for school-aged children. Research on school belonging, however, has been fragmented and diluted by inconsistency in the use of terminology. To resolve some of these inconsistencies, the current study uses meta-analysis of individual and social level factors that influence school belonging. These findings aim to provide guidance on the factors schools should emphasise to best support students. First, a systematic review identified 10 themes that influence school belonging at the student level during adolescence in educational settings (academic motivation, emotional stability, personal characteristics, parent support, peer support, teacher support, gender, race and ethnicity, extracurricular activities and environmental/school safety). Second, the average association between each of these themes and school belonging was meta-analytically examined across 51 studies (N = 67,378). Teacher support and positive personal characteristics were the strongest predictors of school belonging. Results varied by geographic location, with effects generally stronger in rural than in urban locations. The findings may be useful in improving perceptions of school belonging for secondary students through the design of policy, pedagogy and teacher training, by encouraging school leaders and educators to build qualities within the students and change school systems and processes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Markers of poor psychological functioning (e.g. depression, psychoticism, emotional distress) were combined as markers of emotional instability, which we expected to be inversely related to school belonging. For ease of presentation and consistency with other categories, we reversed the effect sizes, such that higher scores indicate less psychological distress, and label this category “emotional stability”.

References

References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis.

  • Allen, K., Ryan, T., Gray, D., McInerney, D., & Waters, L. (2014). The Social Media use in Adolescents: The positives and the pitfalls. Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 31, 18–33.

  • Allen, K. A., Vella-Brodrick, D., & Waters, L. (2016). Fostering school belonging in secondary schools using a socio-ecological framework. The Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 33, 97–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, K., & Bowles, T. (2013). Belonging as a guiding principle in the education of adolescents. Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental Psychology, 12, 108–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderman, E. M. (2002). School effects on psychological outcomes during adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(4), 795–809. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.94.4.795.

  • *Anderman, L. H. (2003). Academic and social perceptions as predictors of change in middle school students’ sense of school belonging. Journal of Experimental Education, 72(1), 5–22.

  • Barber, B. K., & Schluterman, J. M. (2008). Connectedness in the lives of children and adolescents: a call for greater conceptual clarity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 43(3), 209–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Battistich, V., Solomon, D., Kim, D., Watson, M., & Schaps, E. (1995). Schools as communities, poverty levels of student populations, and students’ attitudes, motives, and performance: a multilevel analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 627–658.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Benner, A. D., Graham, S., & Mistry, R. S. (2008). Discerning direct and mediated effects of ecological structures and processes on adolescents’ educational outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 840–854.

  • Blomfield, C., & Barber, B. L. (2010). Australian adolescents’ extracurricular activity participation and positive development: is the relationship mediated by peer attributes? Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental Psychology, 10, 114–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Bonny, A. E., Britto, M. T., Klostermann, B. K., Hornung, R. W., & Slap, G. B. (2000). School disconnectedness: identifying adolescents at risk. Pediatrics, 106, 1017–1021.

  • *Bowen, G., Richman, J. M., & Bowen, N. K. (1998). Sense of school coherence, perceptions of danger at school, and teacher support among youth at risk of school failure. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 15, 273–286.

  • Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss, volume 2: separation. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brechwald, W. A., & Prinstein, M. J. (2011). Beyond homophily: A decade of advances in understanding peer influence processes. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(1), 166–179.

  • *Brewster, A. B., & Bowen, G. L. (2004). Teacher support and the school engagement of Latino middle and high school students at risk of school failure. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 21(1), 47–67.

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 1643–1647). Oxford: Pergamon/Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Brookmeyer, K. A., Fanti, K. A., & Henrich, C. C. (2006). Schools, parents, and youth violence: a multilevel, ecological analysis. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 35(4), 504–514.

  • Brophy, J. (1988). Research linking teacher behavior to student achievement: potential implications for instruction of chapter 1 students. Educational Psychologist, 23, 235–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R., & Evans, W. P. (2002). Extracurricular activity and ethnicity: creating greater school connection among diverse student populations. Urban Education, 37(1), 41–58. doi:10.1177/0042085902371004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown Kirschman, K. J., & Karazsia, B. T. (2014). The role of pediatricpsychology in health promotion and injury prevention. In M. C. Roberts, B. Aylward, & Y. Wu (Eds.), Clinical Practice of Pediatric Psychology (pp. 136–138). New York: Guilford Press.

  • Brutsaert, H., & Van Houtte, M. (2002). Girls’ and boys’ sense of belonging in single-sex versus co-educational schools. Research in Education, 68, 48–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Caraway, K., Tucker, C. M., Reinke, W. M., & Hall, C. (2003). Self-efficacy, goal orientation, and fear of failure as predictors of school engagement in high school students. Psychology in the Schools, 40(4), 417–428.

  • *Carter, M., McGee, R., Taylor, B., & Williams, S. (2007). Health outcomes in adolescence: associations with family, friends and school engagement. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 51–62.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). School connectedness: strategies for increasing protective factors among youth. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chan, K. (2008). Chinese children’s perceptions of advertising and brands: an urban rural comparison. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 25(2), 74–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A. P. (1985). The symbolic construction of community. London: Tavistock.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL). (2003). Safe and sound: an educational leaders’ guide to evidence-based social and emotional learning (SEL) programs. Retrieved from www.casel.org.

  • Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy and relatedness: a motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Minnesota symposium on child psychology, 22 (pp. 43–77). Hillsdale: L. Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell, J. P., Halpern-Felsher, B., Clifford, E., Crichlow, W., & Usinger, P. (1995). Hanging in there: behavioral, psychological, and contextual factors affecting whether African-American adolescents stay in school. Journal of Adolescent Research, 10(1), 41–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, J. E., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Garcia, J., & Cohen, G. L. (2012). Chronic threat and contingent belonging: protective benefits of values affirmation on identity development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(3), 479–496.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cornelius-White, J. H. D. (2007). Learner-centered teacher-student relationships are effective: a meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 77, 113–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Croninger, R. G., & Lee, V. E. (2001). Social capital and dropping out of high school: benefits to at-risk students of teachers’ support and guidance. Teachers College Record, 103(4), 548–581.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, N. J. (2007). Level of bonding to school and perception of the school environment by bullies, victims, and bully victims. Journal of Early Adolescence, 27(4), 457–458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, K. (2012). Friendship 2.0: Adolescents' experiences of belonging and self-disclosure online. Journal of Adolescence, 35(6), 1527–1536.

  • DeCoster, J. (2004). A meta-analysis of priming effects on impression formation supporting a general model of informational biases. Personality and Social Society Review, 8(1), 2–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demanet, J., & Van Houtte, M. (2012). School belonging and school misconduct: the differing role of teacher and peer attachment. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 41, 499–514. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9674-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dotterer, A. M., McHale, S. M., & Crouter, A. C. (2007). Implications of out-of-school activities for school engagement in African American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 391–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drolet, & Arcand. (2013). Positive development, dense of belonging, and support of peers among early adolescents: perspectives of different actors. International Education Studies, 6(4), 29–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dweck, C. S., Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2014). Academic tenacity: mindsets and skills that promote long-term learning. Seattle: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, J. (1992). School and family partnerships. In M. Alkin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational research (6th ed., pp. 1139–1151). New York: MacMillan.

  • Erikson, E. (1968). Identity, youth, and crisis. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, S. T. (2004). Social beings: A core motives approach to social psychology. Hoboken: Wiley.

  • Freeman, T. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2005). Changes in mastery goals in urban and rural middle school students. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 20(1), 123–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, H. S., & Kern, M. L. (2014). Personality, well-being, and health. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 719–742.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frydenberg, E. (2009). Interrelationships between coping, school connectedness and wellbeing. Australian Journal of Education, 53, 261–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Galliher, R. V., Rostosky, S. S., & Hughes, H. K. (2004). School belonging, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms in adolescents: an examination of sex, sexual attraction status, and urbanicity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(3), 235–245.

  • *Garcia-Reid, P. (2007). Examining social capital as a mechanism for improving school engagement among low income Hispanic girls. Youth & Society, 39, 164–181.

  • *Garcia-Reid, P. G., Reid, R. J., & Peterson, N. A. (2005). School engagement among Latino youth in an urban middle school context: valuing the role of social support. Education and Urban Society, 37(3), 257–275.

  • Gering, S. (2009). The interactions of academic press and social support: a descriptive review of the literature and recommendations for comprehensive high schools (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3393988)

  • Gillen-O’Neel, C., & Fuligni, A. (2013). A longitudinal study of school belonging and academic motivation across high school. Child Development, 84(2), 678–692. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01862.

  • Goodenow, C. (1993). Classroom belonging among early adolescent students: relationships to motivation and achievement. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13(1), 21–43. doi:10.1177/0272431693013001002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Goodenow, C., & Grady, K. E. (1993). The relationship of school belonging and friends’ values to academic motivation among urban adolescent students. Journal of Experimental Education, 62(1), 60–71.

  • Greenberger, E., Chen, C., & Beam, M. R. (1998). The role of “very important” nonparental adults in adolescent development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 27(3), 321–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Hallinan, M. T. (2008). Teacher influences on students’ attachment to school. Sociology of Education, 81(3), 271–283.

  • Hamm, J. V., & Faircloth, B. S. (2005). The role of friendship in adolescents’ sense of school belonging. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2005(107), 61–78. doi:10.1002/cd.121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamre, B., & Pianta, R. (2006). Student-teacher relationships as a source of support and risk in schools. In G. G. Bear & K. M. Minke (Eds.), Children’s needs III: development, prevention, and intervention (pp. 59–71). Bethesda: National Association of School Psychologists.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: a synthesis of meta-analyses relating to achievement. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, J. D., & Weis, J. G. (1985). The social development model: an integrated approach to delinquency prevention. Journal of Primary Prevention, 6(2), 73–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: implications for substance-abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Heaven, P. C., Mak, A., Barry, J., & Ciarrochi, J. (2002). Personality and family influences on adolescent attitudes to school and self-rated academic performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 32(3), 453–462.

  • *Henrich, C. C., Brookmeyer, K. A., & Shahar, G. (2005). Weapon violence in adolescence: parent and school connectedness as protective factors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 37, 306–312.

  • Hill, P. L., Allemand, M., Grob, S. Z., Peng, A., Morgenthaler, C., & Käppler, C. (2013). Longitudinal relations between personality traits and identity aspects during adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 413–421.

  • Hirschkorn, M., & Geelan, D. (2008). Bridging the research-practice gap: research translation and/or research transformation. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 54(1), 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Holt, M. K., & Espelage D. L. (2003). A cluster analytic investigation of victimization among high school students: are profiles differentially associated with psychological symptoms and school belonging? The Journal of Applied School Psychology, 19, 81–98.

  • *Jennings, G. (2003). An exploration of meaningful participation and caring relationships as contexts for school engagement. The California School Psychologist, 8, 43–52.

  • Johnson, L. S. (2009). School contexts and student belonging: a mixed methods study of an innovative high school. The School Community Journal, 19(1), 99–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jose, P. E., Ryan, N., & Pryor, J. (2012). Does social connectedness promote a greater sense of well-being in adolescence over time? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(2), 235–251. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2012.00783.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Kaminski, J. W., Puddy, R. W., Hall, D. M., Cashman, S. Y., Crosby, A. E., & Ortega, L. A. (2010). The relative influence of different domains of social connectedness on self-directed violence in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(5), 460–473.

  • *Kelly, A. B., O’Flaherty, M., Toumbourou, J.W., Homel, R., Patton, G. C., White, A. & Williams, J. (2012). The influence of families on early adolescent school connectedness: evidence that this association varies with adolescent involvement in peer drinking networks. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(3), 437–447.

  • Kern, M. L., Adler, A., Waters, L. E., & White, M. A. (2015). Measuring whole-school well-being in students and staff. In Evidence-based approaches in positive education (pp. 65–91). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kern, M. L., Park, N., Peterson, C., & Romer, D. (2016). The positive perspective on youth development. In Evans D. L. (Ed.), Treating and preventing adolescent mental disorders (v. 2). New York: Oxford University Press (in press).

  • Knifsend, C., & Graham, S. (2012). Too much of a good thing? How breadth of extracurricular participation relates to school-related affect and academic outcomes during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 379–389. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9737-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knoblauch, D., & Woolfolk-Hoy, A. (2008). “Maybe I can teach those kids”. The influence of contextual factors on student teachers’ efficacy beliefs. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(1), 166–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Kuperminc, G. P., Leadbeater, B. J., & Blatt, S. J. (2001). School social climate and individual differences in vulnerability to emotional instability among middle school students. Journal of School Psychology, 39(2), 141–159.

  • Law, P. C., Cuskelly, M., & Carroll, A. (2013). Young people’s perceptions of family, peer, and school connectedness and their impact on adjustment. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 23(1), 115–140. doi:10.1017/jgc.2012.19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., Tambor, E. S., Terdal, S. K., & Downs, D. L. (1995). Self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor: the sociometer hypothesis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 68(3), 518–553.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Almerigi, J., Theokas, C., Naudeau, S., Gestsdottir, S … & von Eye, A. (2005). Positive youth development, participation in community youth development programs, and community contributions of fifth grade adolescents: findings from the first wave of the 4-H study of positive youth development. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 17–71.

  • Libbey, H. P. (2004). Measuring student relationships to school: attachment, bonding, connectedness, and engagement. Journal of School Health, 74(7), 275–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lipsey, M. W. (1994). Identifying potentially interesting variables and analysis opportunities. In H. M. Cooper & L. V. Hedges (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis (pp. 111–123). New York: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lonczak, H. S., Abbott, R. D., Hawkins, J. D., Kosterman, R., & Catalano, R. (2002). The effects of the Seattle social development project: behavior, pregnancy, birth, and sexually transmitted disease outcomes by age 21. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 156, 438–447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loukas, A., Roalson, L. A., & Herrera, D. E. (2010). School connectedness buffers the effects of negative family relations and poor effortful control on early adolescent conduct problems. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20(1), 13–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, X. (2003). Sense of belonging to school: can schools make a difference? Journal of Educational Research, 96(3), 340–349. doi:10.1080/00220670309596617.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. New York: D. Van Nostrand.

    Google Scholar 

  • McMahon, S., Parnes, A., Keys, C., & Viola, J. (2008). School belonging among low-income urban youth with disabilities: testing a theoretical model. Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 387–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNeely, C. A., Nonnemaker, J. M., & Blum, R. W. (2002). Promoting school connectedness: evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of School Health, 72(4), 136–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mensah, F. K., Bayer, J. K., Wake, M., Carlin, J. B., Allen, N. B., & Patton, G. C. (2013). Early puberty and childhood social and behavioral adjustment. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(1), 118–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Mo, Y., & Singh, K. (2008). Parents’ relationships and involvement: effects on students’ school engagement and performance. Research in Middle Level Education Online, 31(10), 1–11.

  • Moody, J., & Bearman, P. S. (2004). Suicide and friendships among American adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 94(1), 89–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Nichols, S. L. (2006). Teachers’ and students’ beliefs about student belonging in one middle school. Elementary School Journal, 106(3), 255–271.

  • Nutbrown, C., & Clough, P. (2009). Citizenship and inclusion in the early years: understanding and responding to children’s perspectives on ‘belonging’. International Journal of Early Years Education, 17(3), 191–206. doi:10.1080/09669760903424523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Brennan, L. M., & Furlong, M. J. (2010). Relations between students’ perceptions of school connectedness and peer victimization. Journal of School Violence, 9(4), 375–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, M., Sanson, A, Hawkins, M. T., Letcher, P., Toumbourou, J. W., Smart, D., … Vassaollo, S. (2010). Predictors of positive development in emerging adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(7), 860–874.

  • O’Rourke, J., & Cooper, M. (2010). Lucky to be happy: a study of happiness in Australian primary students. Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental Psychology, 10, 94–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osterman, K. F. (2000). Students’ need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research, 70(3), 323–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pittman, L. D., & Richmond, A. (2007). Academic and psychological functioning in late adolescence: the importance of school belonging. Journal of Experimental Education, 75, 275–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poortinga, W. (2012). Community resilience and health: the role of bonding, bridging, and linking aspects of social capital. Health & Place, 18, 286–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon & Schuster.

  • Quinn, S., & Oldmeadow, J. A. (2013). Is the igeneration a ‘we’ generation? Social networking use among 9- to 13-year-olds and belonging. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 31(1), 136–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ranson, K. E., & Urichuk, L. J. (2008). The effect of parent–child attachment relationships on child biopsychosocial outcomes: a review. Early Child Development and Care, 178, 129–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Read, B., Archer, L., & Leathwood, C. (2003). Challenging cultures? Student conceptions of ‘belonging’ and ‘isolation’ at a post-1992 university. Studies in Higher Education, 28(3), 261–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Reschly, A. L., Huebner, E. S., Appleton, J. J., & Antaramian, S. (2008). Engagement as flourishing: the contribution of positive emotions and coping to adolescents’ engagement at school and with learning. Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 419–431.

  • *Roche, C., & Kuperminc, G. P. (2012). Acculturative stress and school belonging among Latino youth. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 34(1), 61–76.

  • Roeser, R. W., Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. C. (1996). Perceptions of the school psychological environment and early adolescents’ psychological and behavioral functioning in school: the mediating role of goals and belonging. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(3), 408–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roffey, S. (2011). The new teacher’s survival guide to behaviour. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roffey, S. (2012). Pupil wellbeing – teacher wellbeing: two sides of the same coin? Educational & Child Psychology, 29(4), 8–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R. (1991). Meta-analytic procedures for social research (Revth ed.). Newbury Park: Sage.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R., & DiMatteo, M. R. (2001). Meta-analysis: Recent developments in quantitative methods for literature reviews. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 59–82.

  • *Rostosky, S. S., Owens, G. P., Zimmerman, R. S., & Riggle, E. D. B. (2003). Associations among sexual attraction status, school belonging, and alcohol and marijuana use in rural high school students. Journal of Adolescence, 26, 741–751.

  • Rusk, R. D., & Waters, L. E. (2013). Tracing the size, reach, impact, and breadth of positive psychology. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 8(3), 207–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and wellbeing. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.

  • *Ryan, R. M., Stiller, J. D., & Lynch, J. H. (1994). Representations of relationships to teachers, parents, and friends as predictors of academic motivation and self-esteem. Journal of Early Adolescence, 14(2), 226–249.

  • *Ryzin, M. J., Gravely, A. A., & Roseth, C. J. (2009). Autonomy, belongingness, and engagement in school as contributors to adolescent psychological wellbeing. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(1), 1–12.

  • Sakiz, G. (2012). Perceived instructor affective support in relation to academic emotions and motivation in college. Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 32(1), 63–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samdal, O., Nutbeam, D., Wold, B., & Kannas, L. (1998). Achieving health and educational goals through schools: a study of the importance of the climate and students’ satisfaction with school. Health Education Research, 3, 383–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Sanchez, B., Colón, Y., & Esparza, P. (2005). The role of sense of school belonging and gender in the academic adjustment of Latino adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(6), 619–628.

  • Sari, M. (2012). Sense of school belonging among elementary school students. Çukurova University Faculty of Education Journal, 41(1), 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P., Ernst, R. M., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., & Linkins, M. (2009). Positive education: positive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35, 293–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Shochet, I. M., Dadds, M. R., Ham, D., & Montague, R. (2006). School connectedness is an underemphasized parameter in adolescent mental health: results of a community prediction study. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35(2), 170–179.

  • *Shochet, I. M., Smith, C. L., Furlong, M. J., & Homel, R. (2011). A prospective study investigating the impact of school belonging factors on negative affect in adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40(4), 586–595. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.581616.

  • *Shochet, I. M., Smyth, T. L., & Homel, R. (2007). The impact of parental attachment on adolescent perception of the school environment and school connectedness. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 28(2), 109–118.

  • *Simons-Morton, B. G., Crump, A. D., Haynie, D. L., & Saylor, K. E. (1999). Student-school bonding and adolescent problem behavior. Oxford Journals, 14(1), 99–107.

  • *Sirin, S. R., & Rogers-Sirin, L. (2004). Exploring school engagement of middle-class African American adolescents. Youth & Society, 35(3), 323–340.

  • *Sirin, S. R., & Rogers-Sirin, L. (2005). Components of school engagement among African American adolescents. Applied Developmental Science, 9(1), 5–13.

  • Steinberg, L. (2001). We know some things: parent-adolescent relationships in retrospect and prospect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11(1), 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2001). Adolescent development. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 83–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Stoddard, S. A., McMorris, B. J., & Sieving, R. E. (2011). Do social connections and hope matter in predicting early adolescent violence? American Journal of Community Psychology, 48(3–4), 247–256.

  • Tanti, C., Stukas, A. A., Halloran, M. J., & Foddy, M. (2011). Social identity change: shifts in social identity during adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 34(3), 555–567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • The PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses, flow chart. Retrieved from http://www.prisma-statement.org/index.htm

  • Thompson, G. (2013). NAPLAN, my school and accountability: teacher perceptions of the effects of testing. The International Education Journal: Comparative Perspectives, 12(2), 62–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Townsend, K. C., & McWhirter, B. T. (2005). Connectedness: a review of the literature with implications for counseling, assessment, and research. Journal of Counseling and Development, 53(2), 191–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uwah, C., McMahon, G., & Furlow, C. (2008). School belonging, educational aspirations, and academic self-efficacy among African American male high school students: implications for school counselors. Professional School Counseling. Retrieved from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/School+belonging,+educational+aspirations,+and+academic+self-efficacy…-a0180860878

  • Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36(3), 1–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Voelkl, K. E. (1997). School warmth, student participation, and achievement. Journal of Experimental Education, 63, 127–138.

  • *Walker, C. O. (2012). Student perceptions of classroom achievement goals as predictors of belonging and content instrumentality. Social Psychology of Education, 15(1), 97–107.

  • *Wang, M., & Eccles, J. S. (2012). Social support matters: Longitudinal effects of social support on three dimensions of school engagement from middle to high school. Child Development, 83(3), 877–895.

  • Waters, L. (2011). A review of school-based positive psychology interventions. Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 28(2), 75–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Waters, S., Cross, D., & Shaw, T. (2010). Does the nature of schools matter? An exploration of selected school ecology factors on adolescent perceptions of school connectedness. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(3), 381–402. doi:10.1348/000709909X484479.

  • *Wentzel, K. R. (1998). Social relationships and motivation in middle school: the role of parents, teachers, and peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(2), 202–209.

  • White, M. A., & Waters, L. E. (2015). A case study of ‘The Good School’: examples of the use of Peterson’s strengths-based approach with students. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 10(1), 69–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Whitlock, J. (2006). The role of adults, public space, and power in adolescent community connectedness. Journal of Community Psychology, 35(4), 499–518.

  • *Wilkinson-Lee, A. M., Zhang, Q., Nuno, V. L., & Wilhelm, M. S. (2011). Adolescent emotional distress: the role of family obligations and school connectedness. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 221–230. doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9494-9.

  • Willms, J. D. (2003). Student engagement at school: a sense of belonging and participation: results from PISA 2000. Retrieved from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development website: http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/programmeforinternationalstudentassessmentpisa/33689437.pdf

  • Wilson, D., & Elliott, D. (2003, June). The interface of school climate and school connectedness: an exploratory review and study. Paper presented at the Wingspread Conference on School Connectedness, Racine

  • Wingspread Declaration on School Connections. (2004). Journal of School Health, 74(7), 233–234.

  • Wolf, C. G. (1986). Can people use gesture commands? ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, 18(2), 73–74.

  • *Zimmer-Gembeck, M., Chipuer, H., Hanisch, M., Creed, P., & McGregor, L. (2006). Relationships at school and stage-environment fit as resources for adolescent engagement and achievement. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 911–933.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia

    Kelly Allen, Margaret L. Kern, Dianne Vella-Brodrick, John Hattie & Lea Waters

Authors
  1. Kelly Allen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Margaret L. Kern
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Dianne Vella-Brodrick
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. John Hattie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Lea Waters
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kelly Allen.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Electronic Supplementary Material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplemental Figure S1

(DOCX 64 kb)

Supplemental Figure S2

(DOCX 110 kb)

Supplemental Table S2

(DOCX 54 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Allen, K., Kern, M.L., Vella-Brodrick, D. et al. What Schools Need to Know About Fostering School Belonging: a Meta-analysis. Educ Psychol Rev 30, 1–34 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9389-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9389-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation