Abstract
This paper investigates China’s present approach of using “outward-oriented” higher education internationalization for status and image enhancement, and the challenges it faces in the response to this approach. It examines the three major dimensions of China’s present approach including its cultural diplomacy based on Sino-foreign higher education collaboration (i.e., the Confucius Institute program), international development aid in higher education, and international student recruitment at the higher education level. The theoretical framework is developed based on neo-Marxist theories of center-periphery model and world system. The concepts of “soft power” and public diplomacy, Knight’s argument of “knowledge diplomacy,” and Hayhoe’s argument about HE-based civilizational dialogue have been used. The paper reviews and analyzes China’s strategic plans related to its higher education internationalization, as well as relevant academic and non-academic literature about the three major dimensions of its present approach. Findings reveal that tensions still exist between China’s goals and the reality. It suggests that China’s approach should be given a neutral and serious assessment.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
i.e., CPC CC Decision on Educational System Reform (CPC CC 1985); Outline for Reform and Development of Education in China (CPC CC and State Council 1993); Action Plan for Revitalization of Education in the Twenty-First Century (MOE and State Council 1999); 2003–2007 Action Plan for Revitalization of Education (MOE 2004); The National Outline for Mid and Long-Term Education Planning and Development (State Council 2010)
[chengwei liaojie zhongguo xueyousuocheng dui ziji zuguo jianshe youyong de rencai]
References
Altbach, P. (2001). Gigantic peripheries: India and China in international knowledge system. In R. Hayhoe & J. Pan (Eds.), Knowledge across culture: a contribution to dialogue among civilization. Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, the University of Hong Kong.
Altbach, P. (2007). Globalization and the university: realities in an unequal world. In J. Forest & P. Altbach (Eds.), International handbook of higher education. Springer.
Blue, G. (2001). Chinese influences on the Enlightenment in Europe. In R. Hayhoe & J. Pan (Eds.), Knowledge across cultures: A contribution to dialogue among civilizations (pp. 277–288). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Brady, A. M. (2008). Marketing dictatorship. propaganda and thought work in contemporary China. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Bradshaw, J., & Freeze, C. (2013). McMaster closing Confucius Institute over hiring issues. The Globe and Mail. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/education/mcmaster-closing-confucius-institute-over-hiring-issues/article8372894/. Accessed 11 April 2017.
China-Africa Minister of Education Forum. (2005). China-Africa Minister of Education Forum Beijing Declaration. http://202.205.177.9/edoas/website18/97/info31697.htm. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Ching, F. (2014). World should watch for Confucius. The China Post. http://www.chinapost.com.tw/commentary/the-china-post/frank-ching/2014/10/01/418395/world-should.htm. Accessed 11 April 2017.
CPC CC. (1985). Zhonggong zhongyang guanyu jiaoyu tizhi gaige de jueding (CPC CC decision on educational system reform). http://old.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_177/200407/2482.html. Accessed 14 February 2018.
CPC CC & State Council. (1993). Zhongguo jiaoyu gaigehigher educationfazhan gangyao (Outline for reform and development of education in China). http://www.moe.edu.cn/jyb_sjzl/moe_177/tnull_2484.html. Accessed 14 February 2018.
Cull, N. J. (2008). Public diplomacy: Taxonomies and histories. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616, 31–54.
The Economist. (2013). More than minerals. The Economist. https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21574012-chinese-trade-africa-keeps-growing-fears-neocolonialism-are-overdone-more. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Fiskesjö, M. (2015). Stockholm University terminating its Confucius Institute. Humanities and Social Sciences Online. https://networks.h-net.org/node/22055/discussions/56521/stockholm-university-terminating-its-confucius-institute. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Gill, B., & Huang, Y. (2006). Sources and limits of Chinese ‘soft power’. Survival, 48(2), 17–36.
Guruz, K. (2011). Higher education and international student mobility in the global knowledge economy: Revised and updated second edition. Albany: SUNY Press.
Hanban. (2007). Kongzi xueyuan zhangcheng (Constitution and by-laws of the Confucius Institutes). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/confuciousinstitutes/node_7537.htm#nod. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Hanban. (2013). Kongzi xueyuan fazhan guihua (2012–2020) (Development plan of Confucius Institute (2012–2020)). http://old.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/s5987/201302/148061.html. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Hartig, F. (2012). Confucius Institutes and the rise of China. Journal of Chinese Political Science, 17(1), 53–76.
Hayhoe, R. (1995). Universities and the “clash of civilizations?”. Ontario Journal of Higher Education, 27–42.
Hayhoe, R. (1996). China’s universities, 1895–1995: a century of cultural conflict. New York: Garland Pub.
Hayhoe, R., & Liu, J. (2010). China’s universities, cross-border education and the dialogue among civilizations. In D. Chapman, W. Cummings, & G. Postiglione (Eds.), Border crossing in East Asian higher education (pp.77–102.). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Centre, University of Hong Kong/Springer Press.
Huntington, P. (1993). The clash of civilizations. Foreign Affairs, 72(3), 22–49.
Huntington, P. (1996). The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Inside Higher Ed. (2015). University abandons plans for Confucius Institute. University World News. http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20150612145938424. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Ji, W. (2014). Piping kongzi xueyuan yinfa zhongguo guanmei qianglie fanbo (criticism of the Confucius Institute triggered a strong refutation of Chinese official media). BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/china/2014/06/140625_china_confucius_institutes. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Jiang, K. (2014). Inequality in internationalization of higher education. In Hayhoe, R., Marginson, S., Cai, Y., & Jiang, K.. Responses to Yang Rui’s “China’s strategy for internationalization of higher education: an overview”. Frontiers of Education in China, 9(2):163–187.
King, K. (2014). China’s higher education engagement with Africa: a different partnership and cooperation model? In G. Carbonnier, M. Carton, & K. King (Eds.), Education, learning, training: critical issues for development (pp. 151–173). Leiden/Boston: Brill Nijhoff.
Kitano, N. (2014). China’s foreign aid at a transitional stage. Asian Economic Policy Review, 9(2), 301–317.
Knight, J. (2015). Moving from soft power to knowledge diplomacy. International Higher Education, (80), 8–9.
Li, J. (2017). Ideologies, strategies and higher education development: a comparison of china’s university partnerships with the Soviet Union and Africa over space and time. Comparative Education, 53(5), 1–20.
Lueck, T. L., Pipps, V. S., & Lin, Y. (2014). China’s soft power: a New York Times introduction of the Confucius Institute. Howard Journal of Communications, 25(3), 324–349.
Lumumba-Kasongo, T. (2011). China-Africa relations: A neo-imperialism or a neo-colonialism? A reflection. African and Asian Studies, 10(2–3), 234–266.
Maslen, G. (2007). Australia: warning-be wary of Confucius institutes. University World News. http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20071130094503100. Accessed 11 April 2017.
McCord, E. (2014). Confucius Institutes: hardly a threat to academic freedoms. The Diplomat. http://thediplomat.com/2014/03/confucius-institutes-hardly-a-threat-to-academic-freedoms/. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Macleans. (2011). Profs worry China preparing to spy on students: UManitoba considers deal with Confucius Institute. Macleans. http://www.macleans.ca/education/uniandcollege/profs-worry-china-preparing-to-spy-on-students/. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Ministry of Education (MOE), & State Council. (1999). Mianxiang ershiyi shiji jiaoyu zhenxing xingdong jihua (Action plan for revitalization of education in the twenty-first century). http://old.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/s6986/200407/2487.html. Accessed 14 February 2018.
Ministry of Education (MOE), Ministry of Foreign Affairs, & Ministry of Public Security (2000). Gaodeng xuexiao jieshou waiguo liuxuesheng guanli guiding (Administrative rules on the acceptance of foreign students by colleges and universities). http://old.moe.gov.cn//publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_621/201001/xxgk_81859.html. Accessed 14 February 2018.
Ministry of Education (MOE) (2004). 2003–2007 jiaoyu zhenxing xingdong jihua (2003–2007 action plan for revitalization of education). http://old.moe.gov.cn//publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_177/200407/2488.html. Accessed 14 February 2018.
Ministry of Education (MOE). (2010). Plan for study in China. http://www.csc.edu.cn/studyinchina/newsdetailfr.aspx?cid=259&id=4430. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Ministry of Education (MOE) (2001). Quanguo jiaoyu shiye di shi ge wunian jihua (The 10th Five-Year Plan for Educational Development). http://old.moe.gov.cn//publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_177/200407/2486.html. Accessed 14 February 2018.
Ministry of Education (MOE) (2007) Guojia jiaoyu shiye fazhan shiyiwu guihua gangyao (The outline of the 11th five-year plan of national education development). http://old.moe.gov.cn//publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_1778/200710/27737.html. Accessed 14 February 2018.
Ministry of Education (MOE) & Ministry of Finance (MOF). (2008). Jiaoyubu caizhengbu guanyu tiaozheng waiguo liuxuesheng jiangxuejin shenghuofei biaozhun de tongzhi (Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Finance’s announcement of reforming the international student scholarship standards). http://old.moe.gov.cn//publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_2375/200807/37639.html. Accessed 14 February 2018.
Ministry of Education (MOE) (2011). Guojia jiaoyu shiye fazhan di shier ge wunian guihua (The 12th five-year plan for national education development). http://sd.nankai.edu.cn/2016/0512/c4678a41647/page.htm. Accessed 14 February 2018.
Ministry of Education (MOE). (2012). 2012 nian quanguo laihua liuxuesheng jianming tongji baogao (2012 National concise statistical report of foreign student). http://www.moe.edu.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/s5987/201303/148379.html. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Ministry of Education (MOE). (2016a). Guojia jiaoyu shiye fazhan di shier ge wunian guihua (The 13th five-year plan for national education development). http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2017-01/19/content_5161341.htm. Accessed 14 February 2018.
Ministry of Education (MOE). (2016b) 2015 nian quanguo laihua liuxuesheng shuju fabu (2015 data of international students in China published). http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/gzdt_gzdt/s5987/201604/t20160414_238263.html. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Mu, X. (2014). Zhongguo zai feizhou de “xin zhiminzhuyi” zhilu shouzu (China’s “neo-colonialism” path in Africa is blocked). Voice of America (Chinese) http://www.voachinese.com/content/Africa-20141217/2563752.html. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Niu, C. (2010). Zhongguo yu feizhou jiaoyu hezuo de xin fanshi (China and Africa: a new paradigm in education cooperation). Bijiao Jiaoyu Yanjiu, 4, 22–26.
Nye, J. S. (1990). Soft power. Foreign Policy, (80), 153–171.
Nye, J. S. (2008). Public diplomacy and soft power. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616(1), 94–109.
Nye, J.S. (2013). Is overseas aid an instrument of soft power?. https://philvernon.net/2013/07/30/is-overseas-aid-an-instrument-of-soft-power/. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Paradise, J. F. (2009). China and international harmony: the role of Confucius Institutes in bolstering Beijing’s soft power. Asian Survey., 49(4), 647–669.
Redden, E. (2014a). Chicago to close Confucius Institute. Inside Higher Edu. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2014/09/26/chicago-severs-ties-chinese-government-funded-confucius-institute. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Redden, E. (2014b). Another Confucius Institute to close. Inside Higher Edu. https://www.insidehighered.com/quicktakes/2014/10/01/another-confucius-institute-close. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Scott, J., & Marshall, G. (2009). A dictionary of sociology. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199533008.001.0001/acref-9780199533008-e-239. Accessed 11 April 2017.
. (1991). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingjihigher educationshehui fazhan di ba ge wunian jihua gangyao (The 8th five-year plan for national economic and social development). http://www.npc.gov.cn/wxzl/gongbao/2000-12/28/content_5002538.htm. Accessed 14 February 2018.
State Council. (1996). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingjihigher educationshehui fazhan di jiu ge wunian jihua gangyao (The 9th five-year plan for national economic and social development). http://fzzx.zzuli.edu.cn/s/71/t/87/b9/e0/info113120.htm. Accessed 14 February 2018. 2018.
State Council. (2001). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingjihigher educationshehui fazhan di shi ge wunian jihua gangyao (The10th five-year plan for national economic and social development). http://www.npc.gov.cn/wxzl/gongbao/2001-03/19/content_5134505.htm. Accessed 14 February 2018.
State Council. (2006). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingjihigher educationshehui fazhan di shiyi ge wunian guihua gangyao (The 11th five-year plan for national economic and social development). http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2006/content_268766.htm. Accessed 14 February 2018.
State Council. (2010). Guojia zhong chang qi jiaoyu gaigehigher educationfazhan guihua gangyao (National outline for mid and long term education planning and development). http://old.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/info_list/201407/xxgk_171904.html. Accessed 14 February 2018.
State Council. (2011). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingjihigher educationshehui fazhan di shier ge wunian guihua gangyao (The 12th five-year plan for national economic and social development). http://www.hprc.org.cn/wxzl/wxysl/wnjj/diyigewnjh_1/201103/t20110316_153680_1.htht. Accessed 14 February 2018.
State Council. (2014). China foreign aid (2014) white paper. http://english.gov.cn/archive/white_paper/2014/08/23/content_281474982986592.htm. Accessed 14 February 2018.
State Council. (2016). Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingjihigher educationshehui fazhan di shier ge wunian guihua gangyao (The 13th five-year plan for national economic and social development). http://www.npc.gov.cn/wxzl/gongbao/2016-07/08/content_1993756.htm. Accessed 14 February 2018.
Stokes, B. (2015). How Asia-Pacific publics see each other and their national leaders. Pew Research Center. http://www.pewglobal.org/2015/09/02/how-asia-pacific-publics-see-each-other-and-their-national-leaders. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Su, Y. (2009). Lingba nian 17.98 wan ren chuguo liuxue 16.16 wan ren zifei chuguo liuxue (Numbers of students going abroad to study in 2008). http://learning.sohu.com/20090326/n263029186.shtml. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Wallerstein, I. (2004). World-systems analysis: an introduction. Durham, Duke University Press.
Wang, J. (2014a). Woguo laihua liuxuesheng jiaoyu de jiben dingwei (basic orientation and strategies of international student education in China). Zhongguo Gaojiao Yanjiu, 8, 88–92.
Wang, L. (2014b). Internationalization with Chinese characteristics: the changing discourse of internationalization in China. Chinese Education & Society, 47(1), 7–26.
Wen, W. (2013). The formulation and transition of China’s education policy from 1978 to 2007: a discourse analysis. Columbus, Ohio: Foreign Language Publication, Ohio State University.
Wheeler, A. (2014). Cultural diplomacy, language planning, and the case of the University of Nairobi Confucius Institute. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 49(1), 49–63.
Wu, H. 2017. China’s outward-oriented higher education internationalization: a conceptual framework. Presented at the 61st Comparative and International Education Society (CIES) Annual Conference, Atlanta.
Wu, H., & Panthaki, N. (2017). Higher education development in India and China: South Asian, Sinic, and Pan-Asian alternatives. Comparative and International Education/Éducation Comparée et Internationale, 46(1), 1–15.
Wu, H., & Zha, Q. (2018). A new typology for analyzing the direction of movement in higher education internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315318762582
Xi, J. (2017). Secure a decisive victory in building a moderately prosperous society in all respects and strive for the great success of socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era, delivered at the 19th national congress of the Communist Party of China. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/special/2017-11/03/c_136725942.htm. Accessed 15 February 2018.
Xia, Y., & Luo, Z. (2011). Shilun zhongguo dui dongnanya de gonggong waijiao (China’s public diplomacy towards Southeast Asian countries). Dongnanya Zongheng, 4, 40–43.
Yang, R. (2000). Tensions between the global and the local: a comparative illustration of the reorganisation of China’s higher education in the 1950s and 1990s. Higher Education, 39(3), 319–337.
Yang, R. (2007). China’s soft power projection in higher education. International Higher Education, 46, 24–25.
Yang, R. (2010). Soft power and higher education: An examination of China’s Confucius Institutes. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 8(2), 235–245.
Yang, R. (2012). Internationalization, regionalization, and soft power: China’s relations with ASEAN member countries in higher education. Frontiers of Education in China, 7(4), 486–507.
Yang, R. (2013). Indigenizing the Western concept of university: the Chinese experience. Asia Pacific Education Review, 14(1), 85–92.
Yang, R. (2014). China’s strategy for the internationalization of higher education: an overview. Frontiers of Education in China, 9(2), 151–162.
Yao, Q. (1996). A different choice: breaking away from Soviet education pattern. In R. Hayhoe & J. Pan (Eds.), East-west dialogue in knowledge and higher education. Armonk/New York/London: M.E. Sharpe, Inc..
Zhang, Y. (2015). China third most-popular nation for international students. China Daily USA. http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/. Accessed 11 April 2017.
Funding
This study was sponsored by Peak Discipline Construction Project of Education at East China Normal University.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wu, H. Three dimensions of China’s “outward-oriented” higher education internationalization. High Educ 77, 81–96 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-018-0262-1
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-018-0262-1