Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Differential Olfactory Identification in Children with Autism and Asperger’s Disorder: A Comparative and Longitudinal Study

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Key theories of autism implicate orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) compromise, while olfactory identification (OI) deficits are associated with OFC dysfunction. This study aimed to complete a 5-year follow-up of children with high-functioning autism (HFA) who previously lacked the normal age-OI association; and compare unirhinal-OI in children with HFA, Asperger’s disorder (ASP), and controls. While both HFA and controls had improved birhinal-OI at follow-up, reduced OI in some HFA participants suggested OFC deterioration and heterogeneous OFC development. Unirhinal-OI was impaired in HFA but not ASP relative to controls, suggesting orbitofrontal compromise in HFA but integrity in ASP. Differing IQ-OI relationships existed between HFA and ASP. Findings support the hypothesis of separate neurobiological underpinnings in ASP and HFA, specifically differential orbitofrontal functioning.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Amaral, D. G., Schumann, C. M., & Nordahl, C. W. (2008). Neuroanatomy of autism. Trends in Neurosciences, 31(3), 137–145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., Text Revision). Washington, DC: Author.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, R., Maruff, P., Purcell, R., Wainwright, K., Kyrios, M., & Brewer, W. (1999). Impairment of olfactory identification in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychological Medicine, 29, 1227–1233.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (2004). The cognitive neuroscience of autism. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 75, 945–948.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 21, 37–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Ring, H., Moriarty, J., Schmitz, B., Costa, D., & Ell, P. (1994). Recognition of mental state terms: Clinical findings in children with autism and a functional neuroimaging study of normal adults. British Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 640–649.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beaumont, R. B., & Sofronoff, K. (2008). A new computerised advanced theory of mind measure for children with Asperger Syndrome: The ATOMIC. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 249–260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bennetto, L., Kuschner, E. S., & Hyman, S. L. (2007). Olfaction and taste processing in autism. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 1015–1021.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, W., Brereton, A. V., & Tonge, B. J. (2008). Dissociation of age and ability on a visual analogue of the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test in children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 158, 107–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, W. J., Pantelis, C., Anderson, V., Velakoulis, D., Singh, B., Copolov, D. L., et al. (2001). Stability of olfactory identification deficits in neuroleptic-naive patients with first-episode psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 107–115.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, W. J., Pantelis, C., De Luca, C., & Wood, S. (2006). Olfactory Processing and Brain Maturation. In W. Brewer, D. Castle, & C. Pantelis (Eds.), Olfaction and the brain (pp. 103–118). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Chakrabarti, S., & Fombonne, E. (2005). Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children: Confirmation of high prevalence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1133–1141.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiron, C., Jambaque, I., Nabbout, R., Lounes, R., Syrota, A., & Dulac, O. (1997). The right brain hemisphere is dominant in human infants. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 120, 1057–1065.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doty, R. L. (1995). The smell identification test administration manual (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Sensonics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doty, R. L., Frye, R. E., & Agrawal, U. (1989). Internal consistency and short-term test-retest reliability of the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test. Perception and Psychophysics, 45, 381–384.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doty, R. L., Shaman, P., Applebaum, S. L., Giberson, R., Siksorski, L., & Rosenberg, L. (1984a). Smell identification ability: Changes with age. Science, 226, 1441–1443.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doty, R. L., Shaman, P., & Dann, M. (1984b). Development of the University of Pennsylvania smell identification test: A standardized microencapsulated test of olfactory function. Physiology & Behavior, 32, 489–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Girgis, R. R., Minshew, N. J., Melhem, N. M., Nutche, J. J., Keshavan, M. S., & Hardan, A. Y. (2007). Volumetric alterations of the orbitofrontal cortex in autism. Progress in Neuro Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 31(1), 41–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., et al. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 8174–8179.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Good, K. P., Martzke, J. S., Daoud, M. A., & Kopala, L. C. (2003). Unirhinal Norms for the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 17, 226–234.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Happe, F., Ehlers, S., Fletcher, P., Frith, U., Johansson, M., Gillberg, C., et al. (1996). Theory of mind’ in the brain. Evidence from a PET scan study of Asperger syndrome. Neuroreport: An International Journal for the Rapid Communication of Research in Neuroscience, 8, 197–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardan, A. Y., Girgis, R. R., Lacerda, A. L., Yorbik, O., Kilpatrick, M., Keshavan, M. S., et al. (2006). Magnetic resonance imaging study of the orbitofrontal cortex in Autism. Journal of Child Neurology, 21, 866–871.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, S. A., Yechiam, E., Murphy, R. R., Queller, S., & Stout, J. C. (2006). Motivational processes and autonomic responsivity in Asperger’s disorder: Evidence from the Iowa Gambling Task. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 12, 668–676.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaland, N., Callesen, K., Moller-Nielsen, A., Mortensen, E. L., & Smith, L. (2008). Performance of children and adolescents with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism on advanced theory of mind tasks. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1112–1123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karsz, F., Vance, A., Anderson, V., Brann, P., Wood, S., Pantelis, C., et al. (2008). Olfactory impariments in child attention-deficity/hyperactivity disorder. Journa of Clinical Psychiatry, 69, 1462–1468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kopala, L. C., Good, K. P., Koczapski, A. B., & Honer, W. G. (1998). Olfactory deficits in patients with schizophrenia and severe polydipsia. Biological Psychiatry, 43, 497–502.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, N. S., Jollant, F., O’Daly, O., Zelaya, F., & Phillips, M. L. (2009). Distinct roles of prefrontal cortical subregions in the Iowa Gambling Task. Cerebral Cortex, 19, 1134–1143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E.H., Leventhal, B.L., DiLavore, P.C., et al. (2000). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(3), 205–223.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., & La Couteur, A. (1994). Autism diagnostic interview–revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasie developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24, 659–685.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lotspeich, L., Kwon, H., Schumann, C. M., Fryer, S. L., Goodlin-Jones, B. L., Buonocore, M. H., et al. (2004). Investigation of neuroanatomical differences between autism and asperger syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 291–298.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mackay-Sim, A., & Doty, R. L. (2001). The University of Pennsylvania smell identification test: Normative adjustment for Australian subjects. Australian Journal of Oto-Laryngology, 4(3), 174–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martzke, J. S., Kopala, L. C., & Good, K. P. (1997). Olfactory dysfunction in neuropsychiatric disorders: Review and methodological considerations. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 721–732.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAlonan, G. M., Cheung, C., Cheung, V., Wong, N., Suckling, J., & Chua, S. E. (2009). Differential effects on white-matter systems in high-functioning autism and Asperger’s syndrome. Psychological Medicine, 39, 1885–1893.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAlonan, G. M., Suckling, J., Wong, N., Cheung, V., Lienenkaemper, N., Cheung, C., et al. (2008). Distinct patterns of grey matter abnormality in high-functioning autism and Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 1287–1295.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. M., & Chapman, J. P. (2001). Misunderstanding analysis of covariance. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 40–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Minshew, N. J., & Williams, D. L. (2007). The new neurobiology of autism. Archives of Neurology, 64, 945–950.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mullins, M., & Rincover, A. (1985). Comparing autistic and normal children along the dimensions of reinforcement maximization, stimulus sampling, and responsiveness to extinction. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 40, 350–374.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1991a). Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1081–1105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Rogers, S. J., & Pennington, B. F. (1991b). Asperger’s syndrome: Evidence of an empirical distinction from high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1107–1122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C. C., Slaughter, V. P., & Paynter, J. (2007). Social maturity and theory of mind in typically developing children and those on the autism spectrum. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1243–1250.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Potter, H., & Butters, N. (1980). An assessment of olfactory deficits in patients with damage to prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychologia, 18, 621–628.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qureshy, A., Kawashima, R., Imran, M. B., Sugiura, M., Goto, R., Okada, K., et al. (2000). Functional mapping of human brain in olfactory processing: A PET study. Journal of Neurophysiology, 84, 1656–1666.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rinehart, N. J., Bradshaw, J. L., Brereton, A. V., & Tonge, B. J. (2002a). A clinical and neurobehavioural review of high-functioning autism and Asperger’s disorder. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 36, 762–770.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rinehart, N. J., Bradshaw, J. L., Brereton, A. V., & Tonge, B. J. (2002b). Lateralization in individuals with high-functioning autism and Asperger’s disorder: A frontostriatal model. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32, 321–332.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rinehart, N. J., Bradshaw, J. L., Tonge, B. J., Brereton, A. V., & Bellgrove, M. A. (2002c). A neurobehavioral examination of individuals with high-functioning autism and Asperger disorder using a fronto-striatal model of dysfunction. Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews, 1, 164–177.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rinehart, N. J., Tonge, B. J., Bradshaw, J. L., Iansek, R., Enticott, P. G., & Johnson, K. A. (2006). Movement-related potentials in high-functioning autism and Asperger’s disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 48, 272–277.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, J. (1997). Autism as an executive disorder. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savage, R., Combs, D. R., Pinkston, J. B., Advokat, C., & Gouvier, W. (2002). The role of temporal lobe and orbitofrontal cortices in olfactory memory function. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 17, 305–318.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schopler, E. (1996). Are autism and Asperger Syndrome different labels or different disabilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26, 109–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schopler, E., Lansing, M. D., Reichler, R. J., & Marcus, L. M. (2004). Psychoeducational Profile Third Edition (PEP-3). Pro-Ed, USA.

  • Schopler, E., Reichler, R. J., Bashford, A., Lansing, M. D., & Marcus, L. M. (1990). Individualized assessment and treatment for autistic and developmental disabled children: Psychoeducational profile revised (PEP-R). Austin, TX: Proed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schopler, E., Reichler, R. J., & Renner, B. R. (1988). The childhood autism rating scale (CARS). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suzuki, Y., Critchley, H. D., Rowe, A., Howlin, P., & Murphy, D. G. M. (2003). Impaired olfactory identification in Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 15, 105–107.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suzuki, Y., Critchley, H. D., Suckling, J., Fukuda, R., Williams, S. C., Andrew, C., et al. (2001). Functional magnetic resonance imaging of odor identification: The effect of aging. Journals of Gerontology Series A-Biological Sciences & Medical Sciences, 56, 756–760.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tager-Flusberg, H. (2008). Cognitive neuroscience of autism. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14, 917–921.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tonge, B. J., Brereton, A. V., Gray, K. M., & Einfeld, S. L. (1999). Behavioural and emotional disturbance in high-functioning autism and Asperger syndrome. Autism, 3, 117–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vasterling, J. J., Brailey, K., & Sutker, P. B. (2000). Olfactory identification in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 241–253.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vollm, B. A., Taylor, A. N., Richardson, P., Corcoran, R., Stirling, J., McKie, S., et al. (2006). Neuronal correlates of theory of mind and empathy: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study in a nonverbal task. NeroImage, 29, 90–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1989). Wechsler pre school and primary scale of intelligence-revised. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1991). Manual for the wechsler intelligence scale for children (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler intelligence scale for children (4th ed.). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziatas, K., Durkin, K., & Pratt, C. (1998). Belief term development in children with autism, Asperger syndrome, specific language impairment, and normal development: Links to theory of mind development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 755–763.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to provide our thanks to the children and their families who gave up their time to make this work possible. We would also like to thank Nicole Papadopoulos, Dr. Ashwini Nayate, and Samantha Speirs for their assistance with participant recruitment and testing. Associate Professor Brewer is supported by a National Health & Medical Council Career Development Award and the Colonial Foundation. Dr. Enticott is supported by a National Health & Medical Council Training Fellowship.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Developmental Psychiatry and Psychology, School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia

    Tamara May, Peter G. Enticott, Avril V. Brereton & Bruce J. Tonge

  2. ORYGEN Youth Health Research Centre, University of Melbourne, Locked Bag 10, Parkville, 3052, VIC, Australia

    Warrick J. Brewer

  3. Centre for Developmental Psychiatry and Psychology, School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Notting Hill, VIC, Australia

    Nicole J. Rinehart

Authors
  1. Tamara May
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Warrick J. Brewer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Nicole J. Rinehart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Peter G. Enticott
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Avril V. Brereton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Bruce J. Tonge
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Warrick J. Brewer.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

May, T., Brewer, W.J., Rinehart, N.J. et al. Differential Olfactory Identification in Children with Autism and Asperger’s Disorder: A Comparative and Longitudinal Study. J Autism Dev Disord 41, 837–847 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1101-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1101-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation