Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Parents of Children with ASD Experience More Psychological Distress, Parenting Stress, and Attachment-Related Anxiety

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

There has been limited study of the relationship between child attachment and caregiver wellbeing amongst children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study examined self-reported child attachment quality alongside caregivers’ report of their own psychological distress, parenting stress and attachment style, amongst 24 children with high-functioning autism or Asperger’s disorder (ASD; aged 7–14 years) and 24 typically developing children (aged 7–12 years), and their primary caregiver. Children with ASD were no less secure, but their caregivers were more stressed and reported more attachment-related anxiety, compared to typically developing dyads. Child attachment security was related to caregiver psychological distress and attachment style, but only amongst typically developing children. Impacts of emotion processing impairments on caregiver-child relationships in ASD are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abbeduto, L., Seltzer, M. M., Shattuck, P., Krauss, M. W., Orsmond, G., & Murphy, M. M. (2004). Psychological well-being and coping in mothers of youths with autism, down syndrome, or fragile X syndrome. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 109, 237–254.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting stress index (3rd ed.). FL: Psychological Assessment Resource.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5) (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, G., & Slade, T. (2001). Interpreting scores on the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10). Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 25, 494–497. doi:10.1111/j.1467-842X.2001.tb00310.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2013). Socio-Economic indices for areas (SEIFA)—Technical paper, 2011. Canberra. http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/2033.0.55.001. Accessed 04/06/14.

  • Baker-Ericzen, M. J., Brookman-Frazee, L., & Stahmer, A. (2005). Stress levels and adaptability in parents of toddlers with and without autism spectrum disorders. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30, 194–204. doi:10.2511/rpsd.30.4.194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 21, 37–46. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauminger, N., Solomon, M., & Rogers, S. J. (2010). Predicting friendship quality in autism spectrum disorders and typical development. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 751–761. doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0928-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J. (1999). Interactional and contextual determinants of attachment security. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications (pp. 249–264). New York: Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beurkens, N. M., Hobson, J. A., & Hobson, R. P. (2013). Autism severity and qualities of parent–child relations. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 168–178. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1562-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bouma, R., & Schweitzer, R. (1990). The impact of chronic childhood illness on family stress—A comparison between autism and cystic fibrosis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 46, 722–730. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(199011)46:6<722:aid-jclp2270460605>3.0.co;2-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1969/1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. I. Attachment. New York, NY: Basic Books.

  • Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Loss. New York: Basic Books.

  • Brumariu, L. E., & Kerns, K. A. (2008). Mother–child attachment and social anxiety symptoms in middle childhood. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29, 393–402. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2008.06.002.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Capps, L., Sigman, M., & Mundy, P. (1994). Attachment security in children with autism. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 249–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cassel, T. D., Messinger, D. S., Ibanez, L. V., Haltigan, J. D., Acosta, S. I., & Buchman, A. C. (2007). Early social and emotional communication in the infant siblings of children with autism spectrum disorders: An examination of the broad phenotype. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 122–132. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0337-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, J. (1988). Child–mother attachment and the self in 6-year-olds. Child Development, 59, 121–134. doi:10.2307/1130394.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chandler, F., & Dissanayake, C. (2014). An investigation of the security of caregiver attachment during middle childhood in children with high-functioning autistic disorder. Autism, 18, 485–492. doi:10.1177/1362361313486205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dabrowska, A., & Pisula, E. (2010). Parenting stress and coping styles in mothers and fathers of pre-school children with autism and Down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 54, 266–280.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, N. O., & Carter, A. S. (2008). Parenting stress in mothers and fathers of toddlers with autism spectrum disorders: Associations with child characteristics. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1278–1291. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0512-z.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., Toth, K., Abbott, R., Osterling, J., Munson, J., Estes, A., et al. (2004). Early social attention impairments in autism: Social orienting, joint attention, and attention to distress. Developmental Psychology, 40, 271–283. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.271.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dissanayake, C., & Crossley, S. A. (1996). Proximity and sociable behaviours in autism: Evidence for attachment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 37, 149–156. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01386.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dissanayake, C., & Crossley, S. A. (1997). Autistic children’s responses to separation and reunion with their mothers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27, 295–312. doi:10.1023/a:1025802515241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dissanayake, C., & Sigman, M. (2001). Attachment and emotional responsiveness in children with autism. International Review of Research in Mental Retardation, 23, 239–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolev, S., Oppenheim, D., Koren-Karie, N., & Yirmiya, N. (2009). Emotional availability in mother–child interaction: The case of children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Parenting-Science and Practice, 9, 183–197. doi:10.1080/15295190902844332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dwyer, K. M. (2005). The meaning and measurement of attachment in middle and late childhood. Human Development, 48, 155–182. doi:10.1159/000085519.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fairchild, A. J., & Finney, S. J. (2006). Investigating validity evidence for the experiences in close relationships—Revised questionnaire. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66, 116–135. doi:10.1177/0013164405278564.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Falk, N. H., Norris, K., & Quinn, M. G. (2014). The factors predicting stress, anxiety and depression in the parents of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 3185–3203. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2189-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finnegan, R. A., Hodges, E. V. E., & Perry, D. G. (1996). Preoccupied and avoidant coping during middle childhood. Child Development, 67, 1318–1328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fonagy, P., Steele, M., Steele, H., Moran, G. S., & Higgitt, A. C. (1991). The capacity for understanding mental states—The reflective self in parent and child and its significance for security of attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 12, 201–218. doi:10.1002/1097-0355(199123)12:3<201:aid-imhj2280120307>3.0.co;2-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraley, C. R., Waller, N. G., & Brennan, K. A. (2000). An item response theory analysis of self-report measures of adult attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 350–365.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Granot, D., & Mayseless, O. (2001). Attachment security and adjustment to school in middle childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 530–541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grzadzinski, R. L., Luyster, R., Spencer, A. G., & Lord, C. (2014). Attachment in young children with autism spectrum disorders: An examination of separation and reunion behaviors with both mothers and fathers. Autism, 18, 85–96. doi:10.1177/1362361312467235.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haltigan, J. D., Ekas, N. V., Seifer, R., & Messinger, D. S. (2011). Brief report: Attachment security in infants at-risk for autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41, 962–967. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1107-7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1982). The perceived competence scale for children. Child Development, 53, 87–97. doi:10.2307/1129640.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haskett, M. E., Ahern, L. S., Ward, C. S., & Allaire, J. C. (2006). Factor structure and validity of the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 302–312. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3502_14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hodge, D., Hoffman, C. D., & Sweeney, D. P. (2011). Increased psychopathology in parents of children with autism: Genetic liability or burden of caregiving? Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 23, 227–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, C. D., Sweeney, D. P., Hodge, D., Lopez-Wagner, M. C., & Looney, L. (2009). Parenting stress and closeness; mothers of typically developing children and mothers of children with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 24, 178–187. doi:10.1177/1088357609338715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoppes, K., & Harris, S. L. (1990). Perceptions of child attachment and maternal gratification in mothers of children with autism and down-syndrome. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19, 365–370. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp1904_8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutman, T., Siller, M., & Sigman, M. (2009). Mothers’ narratives regarding their child with autism predict maternal synchronous behavior during play. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1255–1263. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02109.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, K. A., Abraham, M. M., Schlegelmilch, A., & Morgan, T. A. (2007). Mother–child attachment in later middle childhood: Assessment approaches and associations with mood and emotion regulation. Attachment & Human Development, 9, 33–53. doi:10.1080/14616730601151441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, K. A., Brumariu, L. E., & Seibert, A. (2011). Multi-method assessment of mother–child attachment: Links to parenting and child depressive symptoms in middle childhood. Attachment & Human Development, 13, 315–333. doi:10.1080/14616734.2011.584398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, K. A., Klepac, L., & Cole, A. K. (1996). Peer relationships and preadolescents’ perceptions of security in the child–mother relationship. Developmental Psychology, 32, 457–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, K. A., Tomich, P. L., Aspelmeier, J. E., & Contreras, J. M. (2000). Attachment-based assessments of parent–child relationships in middle childhood. Developmental Psychology, 36, 614–626. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.36.5.614.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, K. A., Tomich, P. L., & Kim, P. (2006). Normative trends in children’s perceptions of availability and utilization of attachment figures in middle childhood. Social Development, 15, 1–22. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2006.00327.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Andrews, G., Colpe, L. J., Hiripi, E., Mroczek, D. K., Normand, S. L. T., et al. (2002). Short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress. Psychological Medicine, 32, 959–976.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koren-Karie, N., Oppenheim, D., Dolev, S., Sher, E., & Etzion-Carasso, A. (2002). Mothers’ insightfulness regarding their infants’ internal experience: Relations with maternal sensitivity and infant attachment. Developmental Psychology, 38, 534–542. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.4.534.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koren-Karie, N., Oppenheim, D., Dolev, S., & Yirmiya, N. (2009). Mothers of securely attached children with autism spectrum disorder are more sensitive than mothers of insecurely attached children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 643–650. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02043.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, J. C. (2007). Maternal synchrony predicts joint attention and language gains in toddlers with autism. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Massachusetts Boston, Ann Arbor.

  • Lau, W., & Peterson, C. C. (2011). Adults and children with Asperger syndrome: Exploring adult attachment style, marital satisfaction and satisfaction with parenthood. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 392–399. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2010.06.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, G. K. (2009). Parents of children with high functioning autism: How well do they cope and adjust? Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 21, 93–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marvin, R. S., & Pianta, R. C. (1996). Mothers’ reactions to their child’s diagnosis: Relations with security of attachment. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25, 436–445. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2504_8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKelvey, L. M., Whiteside-Mansell, L., Faldowski, R. A., Shears, J., Ayoub, C., & Hart, A. D. (2009). Validity of the short form of the parenting stress index for fathers of toddlers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18, 102–111. doi:10.1007/s10826-008-9211-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montes, G., & Halterman, J. S. (2007). Psychological functioning and coping among mothers of children with autism: A population-based study. Pediatrics, 119, 1040–1046.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naber, F. B. A., Swinkels, S. H. N., Buitelaar, J. K., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Dietz, C., et al. (2007). Attachment in toddlers with autism and other developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1123–1138.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nuske, H. J., Vivanti, G., & Dissanayake, C. (2013). Are emotion impairments unique to, universal, or specific in autism spectrum disorder? A comprehensive review. Cognition and Emotion, 27, 1042–1061. doi:10.1080/02699931.2012.762900.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oppenheim, D., Koren-Karie, N., Dolev, S., & Yirmiya, N. (2008). Secure attachment in children with autism spectrum disorder: The role of maternal insightfulness. Zero to Three, 28, 25–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oppenheim, D., Koren-Karie, N., Dolev, S., & Yirmiya, N. (2009). Maternal insightfulness and resolution of the diagnosis are associated with secure attachment in preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders. Child Development, 80, 519–527. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01276.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oppenheim, D., Koren-Karie, N., Dolev, S., & Yirmiya, N. (2012). Maternal sensitivity mediates the link between maternal insightfulness/resolution and child–mother attachment: The case of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Attachment & Human Development, 14, 567–584. doi:10.1080/14616734.2012.727256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piven, J., & Palmer, P. (1999). Psychiatric disorder and the broad autism phenotype: Evidence from a family study of multiple-incidence autism families. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 557–563.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reitman, D., Currier, R. O., & Stickle, T. R. (2002). A critical evaluation of the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) in a head start population. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 384–392. doi:10.1207/153744202760082649.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, S. J., Ozonoff, S., & Maslin-Cole, C. (1991). A comparative study of attachment behavior in young children with autism or other psychiatric disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 483–488.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, S. J., Ozonoff, S., & Maslin-Cole, C. (1993). Developmental aspects of attachment behavior in young children with pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 1274–1282. doi:10.1097/00004583-199311000-00023.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz-Robledillo, N., & Moya-Albiol, L. (2015). Lower electrodermal activity to acute stress in caregivers of people with autism spectrum disorder: An adaptive habituation to stress. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 576–588. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1996-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutgers, A. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & van Berckelaer-Onnes, I. A. (2004). Autism and attachment: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1123–1134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seskin, L., Feliciano, E., Tippy, G., Yedloutschnig, R., Sossin, K. M., & Yasik, A. (2010). Attachment and autism: Parental attachment representations and relational behaviors in the parent–child dyad. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 949–960. doi:10.1007/s10802-010-9417-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sibley, C. G., Fischer, R., & Liu, J. H. (2005). Reliability and validity of the revised experiences in close relationships (ECR-R) self-report measure of adult romantic attachment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1524–1536. doi:10.1177/0146167205276865.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sigman, M., & Mundy, P. (1989). Social attachments in autistic children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 74–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sigman, M., & Ungerer, J. A. (1984). Attachment behaviors in autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 14, 231–244.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siller, M., & Sigman, M. (2002). The behaviors of parents of children with autism predict the subsequent development of their children’s communication. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32, 77–89. doi:10.1023/a:1014884404276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siller, M., & Sigman, M. (2008). Modeling longitudinal change in the language abilities of children with autism: Parent behaviors and child characteristics as predictors of change. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1691–1704. doi:10.1037/a0013771.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siller, M., Swanson, M., Gerber, A., Hutman, T., & Sigman, M. (2014). A parent-mediated intervention that targets responsive parental behaviors increases attachment behaviors in children with ASD: Results from a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 1720–1732. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2049-2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sivaratnam, C. S., Newman, L. K., Tonge, B. J., & Rinehart, N. J. (2015). Attachment and emotion processing in children with autism spectrum disorders: Neurobiological, neuroendocrine, and neurocognitive considerations. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2, 222–242. doi:10.1007/s40489-015-0048-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slade, A. (2009). Mentalizing the unmentalizable: Parenting children on the spectrum. Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy, 8, 7–21. doi:10.1080/15289160802683054.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slade, T., Grove, R., & Burgess, P. (2011). Kessler Psychological Distress Scale: Normative data from the 2007 Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 45, 308–316. doi:10.3109/00048674.2010.543653.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tomanik, S., Harris, G. E., & Hawkins, J. (2004). The relationship between behaviour exhibited by children with autism and maternal stress. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 29, 16–26. doi:10.1080/13668250410001662892.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1995). Adult attachment representations, parental responsiveness, and infant attachment: A meta-analysis on the predictive validity of the adult attachment interview. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 387–403.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Rutgers, A. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Swinkels, S. H. N., van Daalen, E., Dietz, C., et al. (2007). Parental sensitivity and attachment in children with autism spectrum disorder: Comparison with children with mental retardation, with language delays, and with typical development. Child Development, 78, 597–608. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01016.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2004). WPPSI-III Australian Administration and Scoring Manual. NSW: Harcourt Assessment.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2005). WISC-IV Australian Administration and Scoring Manual. NSW: Harcourt Assessments.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2011). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence—Second edition (WASI-II). San Antonio, TX: NCS Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willemsen-Swinkels, S. H. N., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Buitelaar, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & van Engeland, H. (2000). Insecure and disorganised attachment in children with a pervasive developmental disorder: Relationship with social interaction and heart rate. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 759–767.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, C. L., An, C. P., Tseng, L. P., Chen, H. C., Chan, Y. C., Cho, S. L., et al. (2015). Fear of being laughed at with relation to parent attachment in individuals with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 10, 116–123. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2014.11.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yirmiya, N., & Shaked, M. (2005). Psychiatric disorders in parents of children with autism: A meta-analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 69–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yunger, J. L., Corby, B. C., & Perry, D. G. (2005). Dimensions of attachment in middle childhood. In K. A. Kerns & R. A. Richardson (Eds.), Attachment in middle childhood (pp. 89–114). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was completed by Belinda Keenan as part of a Doctorate in Clinical Psychology at Monash University, supervised by Louise Newman, Nicole Rinehart and Kylie Gray. This work was funded by Monash University School of Psychological Sciences. We are grateful to Tamara May for assistance in participant recruitment and cognitive testing.

Funding

This work was funded by Monash University School of Psychological Sciences.

Author Contributions

BK participated in the design and coordination of the study, conducted the recruitment and testing of participants, and drafted the manuscript; LN conceived of the study, participated in the design of the study and interpretation of the data, and helped draft the manuscript; KG conceived of the study, participated in the design of the study and interpretation of the data, and helped draft the manuscript; NR conceived of the study, participated in the design of the study and interpretation of the data, and helped draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Developmental Psychiatry and Psychology, Department of Psychiatry, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Notting Hill, VIC, Australia

    Belinda M. Keenan & Kylie M. Gray

  2. Centre for Women’s Mental Health, The Royal Women’s Hospital and University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia

    Louise K. Newman

  3. Deakin Child Study Centre, School of Psychology, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia

    Nicole J. Rinehart

Authors
  1. Belinda M. Keenan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Louise K. Newman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kylie M. Gray
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Nicole J. Rinehart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Belinda M. Keenan.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institution and national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Keenan, B.M., Newman, L.K., Gray, K.M. et al. Parents of Children with ASD Experience More Psychological Distress, Parenting Stress, and Attachment-Related Anxiety. J Autism Dev Disord 46, 2979–2991 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2836-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2836-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation