Abstract
Emergy analysis is a thermodynamically based approach to assess the performance of systems and it is a useful tool for environmental decision-making. The kelp resource (Lessonia nigrescens Bory) is the basis for one of the main benthic fisheries of northern Chile, in both economic and social terms. The Atacama coastal kelp fishery is most important at the national level. To better understand the long-term changes in the environmental and socioeconomic factors that govern the sustainability of the resource, emergy synthesis was used to evaluate the performance of the L. nigrescens kelp fishery, based on data from 2000, 2014, and 2018. These emergy assessments show that over this period, the empower base (R) supporting intertidal kelp beds decreased 41%, the annual emergy used in the fishing effort (F) increased by an order of magnitude, and the total emergy used in the fishing system (Y) decreased by 39%. The values of the Landings/Fishing Effort Ratio (EYR) showed a general tendency to decrease, as the Emergy Investment Ratio (EIR) increased. The economic exchange of emergy indicates that in 2014 the extractors/collectors operating the algae fishery obtained the greatest emergy gain by trading. The analysis of the emergy indicators explained the long-term changes in the sustainability of the kelp resource and the emergy balance of the economic transactions over the last 20 years. In addition, the emergy evaluation results can be used as a complement to traditional planning methods, to design and implement system-based, resource management measures to ensure a sustainable and healthy kelp fishery.
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All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article (and its supplementary information files in appendices 1 and 2).
Notes
The capacity of the product or service to do work in its system as contrasted with its money value. For example, a kilowatt-hour of electricity will light a bulb for X hours, regardless of the price paid at the meter.
Available energy is energy with the potential to do work against the background conditions in the environment.
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Acknowledgements
This work was conducted as part of the Postdoctoral Programme 2018 of the first author funded by the Vicerrectoría de Investigación y Postgrado de la Universidad de Atacama (VRIP), Chile.
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Appendices
Appendix 1
Calculation and data sources of the energy and 1 emergy signatures for the intertidal 2 zone of the coast of the Atacama region in the three time periods.
Raw data | References and assumptions | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
2000 | 2014 | 2018 | ||
Intertidal area of Lessonia nigrescens kelp forest (m2) | 8.71E + 06 | 8.71E + 06 | 8.71E + 06 | Average value between González et al. (2002) and Thomas et al. (2016) |
Length of intertidal kelp forest (m) | 6.59E + 05 | 6.59E + 05 | 6.59E + 05 | This study from Cartography A.A.A III Region, www. subpesca.cl |
Approximate coverage area kelp | 6.53E + 06 | 6.53E + 06 | 6.53E + 06 | This is an estimate of the area covered by kelp 25 to 100% (75% area covered by kelp) |
Approximate coverage length kelp | 4.94E + 05 | 4.94E + 05 | 4.94E + 05 | This is an estimate of the legth covered by kelp 25 to 100% (75% area covered by kelp), |
Estimate band of kelp along shore | 13.23 | 13.23 | 13.23 | This is an estimate of the band covered by kelp |
Energy sources | ||||
1) Solar energy absorbed | ||||
Area (m2) | 6.53E + 06 | 6.53E + 06 | 6.53E + 06 | |
Solar radiation (J m −2 y−1) | 7.30E + 09 | 7.30E + 09 | 7.30E + 09 | |
Albedo | 0.18 | 0.18 | 0.18 | https://neo.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/view.php?datasetId=MCD43C3_M_BSA |
Equation = (area) x (solar radiation) x (1-albedo) | ||||
Solar energy absorbed by kelp (J y−1) | 3.91E + 16 | 3.91E + 16 | 3.91E + 16 | |
Transformity (sej J-1) | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Annual emergy absorbed (sej y−1) | 3.91E + 16 | 3.91E + 16 | 3.91E + 16 | |
2) Kinetic energy of wind absorbed at the surface | ||||
Area (m2) | 6.53E + 06 | 6.53E + 06 | 6.53E + 06 | |
Density (kg m−3) | 1.225 | 1.225 | 1.225 | Sea level 15° C |
Drag coeff. over water | 0.00125 | 0.00125 | 0.00125 | Kara et al. (2007) |
Wind velocity (m s−1) | 4.24 | 4.18 | 4.22 | |
Time (seconds/year) | 3.16E + 07 | 3.16E + 07 | 3.16E + 07 | 60X60X24X365.25 |
Geostrophic wind velocity (m s−1) | 7.06 | 6.97 | 7.03 | Obtained from 10/6*wind velocity, from Campbell and Erban (2017) |
Equation = (area) x (density) x (drag coeff.) x (geostrophic wind velocity)3 x (time) | ||||
Wind energy absorbed (J y−1) | 1.11E + 14 | 1.07E + 14 | 1.10E + 14 | |
Transformity (sej J−1) | 1241 | 1241 | 1241 | New calculation Campbell and Erban (2017) |
Annual emergy absorbed (sej y−1) | 1.38E + 17 | 1.32E + 17 | 1.36E + 17 | |
3) Tidal energy absorbed using area covered by kelp | ||||
Area (m2) | 6.53E + 06 | 6.53E + 06 | 6.53E + 06 | |
Tides per year | 706 | 706 | 706 | |
Height range (m) | 1.55 | 1.58 | 1.6 | |
Density (kg m−3) | 1.03E + 03 | 1.03E + 03 | 1.03E + 03 | Seawater 35 ‰ |
Gravity (m s−2) | 9.8 | 9.8 | 9.8 | |
Fraction of the day that the kelp beds are covered with water | 0.45 | 0.45 | 0.45 | This study: this number is based on the fraction of time (day) that the intertidal zone is inundated |
Equation = (area elevated) x (height)2 x (density) x (tides/year) x (gravity) | ||||
Tidal energy absorbed (J y−1) | 5.00E + 13 | 5.19E + 13 | 5.60E + 13 | |
Transformity (sej J−1) | 35,400 | 35,400 | 35,400 | New transformity for the tide from the geobiosphere baseline paper Campbell (2016) |
Annual emergy absorbed (sej y−1) | 1.77E + 18 | 1.84E + 18 | 1.98E + 18 | |
4) Wave energy absorbed | ||||
Coverage shore length (m) kelp | 4.94E + 05 | 4.94E + 05 | 4.94E + 05 | |
Absorption ratio (amplitude is 1/8 height) | 0.13 | 0.13 | 0.13 | Odum and Arding (1991) |
Density (kg m−3) | 1.03E + 03 | 1.03E + 03 | 1.03E + 03 | Seawater 35 ‰ |
Significant wave height (m) | 2.00 | 2.00 | 2.00 | Aguirre et al. (2017) |
Mean wave height (m) | 1.26 | 1.26 | 1.26 | Significant wave height adjusted by 0.6275 to give mean wave height (m) https://www.weather.gov/key/marine_sigwave |
Gravity (m s−1) | 9.8 | 9.8 | 9.8 | |
Time inundated (seconds year−1), seconds that waves are present on the shoreline over the kelp bed | 1.52E + 07 | 1.52E + 07 | 1.52E + 07 | 60X60X11.53X365.5 Seconds that waves are presents on the shoreline over the kelp bed |
Reflection | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | We assume 50% is absorbed and 50% is reflected from this rocky shore |
Wave velocity (m s−1) | 3.90 | 3.93 | 3.96 | Velocity is: square root of gravity times depth, depths: 1.55, 1.58 and 1.6 m |
Equation = (coverage shore length kelp) x (absorption ratio) x (density) x (gravity) x (0.5, center of gravity) x (time inundated) x (mean wave height)2 x (reflection) x (wave velocity) | ||||
Wave energy absorbed (J y−1) | 1.45E + 16 | 1.46E + 16 | 1.47E + 16 | |
Transformity (sej J−1) | 79,800 | 79,800 | 79,800 | New transformity calculated relative to the new baseline, Campbell (manuscript) |
Annual emergy absorbed (sej y−1) | 1.16E + 21 | 1.17E + 21 | 1.18E + 21 | |
Biomass ratio | 1.000 | 0.467 | 0.604 | This assumes that the wave energy absorbed by the kelp depends on the kelp biomass present in the area. Number is scaled to the maximum biomass observed. Data biomass from González et al. (2002), Thomas et al. (2016) and Ortiz (2020) |
Adjusted annual wave emergy absorbed | 1.16E + 21 | 5.46E + 20 | 7.11E + 20 | Adjusted wave emergy absorbed by the kelp biomass using P/B ratio to scale biomass and assuming that the largest biomass includes the whole front of wave impact. If it is actually less the emergy of the energy absorbed should be adjusted by that factor |
5) Nitrogen uptake by Lessonia nigrescens kelps forest | 3.83 | 2.84 | 1.00 | Ratio uptake N and production is same for biomass |
Production Lessonia kelp forest (g wwt. y−1) | 1.77E + 11 | 1.32E + 11 | 4.63E + 10 | Production estimates from Canales et al. (2018) |
Conversion factor (dwt./wwt.) for L. nigrescens | 0.35 | 0.35 | 0.35 | Westermeier and Gómez (1996) |
Nitrogen as a fraction of dwt for L. nigrescens | 0.018 | 0.018 | 0.018 | Pansch et al. (2008) |
Equation = (conversion factor) x (nitrogen as dwt) x (production) | ||||
Annual nitrate nitrogen uptake (g N y−1) | 1.12E + 09 | 8.29E + 08 | 2.92E + 08 | |
Molar weight N (g mole−1) | 1.40E + 01 | 1.40E + 01 | 1.40E + 01 | |
Gibb’s free energy of formation HNO3 per mole Equivalence in Joules (J mole−1) | -7.99E + 04 | -7.99E + 04 | -7.99E + 04 | http://www.wiredchemist.com/chemistry/data/entropies-inorganic |
Equation = (annual nitrate nitrogen uptake) / (14 g mole−1) x (-79,990 J mole−1) | ||||
Annual Chemical potential energy uptake (J y−1) | 6.37E + 12 | 4.73E + 12 | 1.66E + 12 | |
Transformity HNO3 (sej J−1) | 1.08E + 07 | 1.08E + 07 | 1.08E + 07 | Transformity of NOx as HNO3 from Campbell (2003) calculated relative to the new baseline |
Annual emergy uptake as NO3 (sej y−1) | 6.88E + 19 | 5.11E + 19 | 1.80E + 19 | |
6) Production L. nigrescens kelp forest | ||||
Production L. nigrescens kelp forest (g wwt. y−1) | 1.77E + 11 | 1.32E + 11 | 4.63E + 10 | Production estimates from Canales et al. (2018) |
Conversion factor (dwt./wwt.) for L. nigrescens | 0.35 | 0.35 | 0.35 | Westermeier and Gómez (1996) |
Energy (J g dwt−1) for L. nigrescens | 17,000 | 17,000 | 17,000 | Westermeier and Gómez (1996) |
Equation = (production) x (conversion factor) x (energy) | ||||
Energy production Lessonia kelp forest (J m−2 y−1) | 1.05E + 15 | 7.83E + 14 | 2.76E + 14 | |
Transformity (sej J−1) | 1.16E + 06 | 7.63E + 05 | 2.64E + 06 | This study |
Annual emergy (sej y−1) required for production | 1.23E + 21 | 5.97E + 20 | 7.29E + 20 | |
7) Fishing effort (F) | ||||
Number of fishermen | 400 | 1810 | 1818 | SERNAPESCA Caldera Port Office |
Annual working hours (hours) per fisherman | 1.19E + 03 | 1.19E + 03 | 1.19E + 03 | This study |
Energy cost per hour (kcal h−1) | 1.04E + 02 | 1.04E + 02 | 1.04E + 02 | Lu et al. (2006) |
Energy (J kcal−1) | 4186 | 4186 | 4186 | Odum (1996) |
Equation = (number of fishermen) x (annual working hours) x (kcal h−1) x (J kcal−1) | ||||
Annual energy cost in fishing effort | 2.07E + 11 | 9.36E + 11 | 9.40E + 11 | |
Transformity labor (sej J−1) | 2.90E + 07 | 2.90E + 07 | 2.90E + 07 | Transformity calculated for Chile from NEAD (2008), calculated relative to the new baseline |
Annual emergy cost in fishing effort (sej y−1) | 6.00E + 18 | 2.72E + 19 | 2.73E + 19 | |
8) Landing (L) | ||||
Annual landing (g wwt. y−1) | 2.42E + 10 | 6.65E + 10 | 2.66E + 10 | |
Specific emergy (sej g−1 wwt) | 4.32E + 09 | 1.75E + 09 | 9.76E + 09 | This study, appendix 2 |
Annual emergy harvested (sej y−1) | 1.05E + 20 | 1.16E + 20 | 2.59E + 20 | |
Appendix 2
Calculation and data sources of the biomass, biomass emergy, specific emergy, the emergy harvested, the price per ton, the total weight of the kelp harvested from the coastal intertidal of the Atacama region are shown in this table. The biomass (g wwt.) was calculated from Canales et al. (2018) and the specific emergy (sej gwwt−1.) is obtained from the biomass emergy (sej) (from Table 3) divided by the biomass (g wwt.) and the emergy harvested (sej y−1) is obtained by multiplying this Specific emergy by weight of the flow harvested (from Appendix 1) (gwwt. y−1).
Year | Biomass | Biomass emergy | Specific emergy | Flow harvested | Emergy harvested | Price/ton | Weight |
(y) | (g wwt.) | (sej) | (sej g−1 wwt) | (g wwt. y−1) | (sej y−1) | (US$) | (Tonnes) |
2000 | 2.24E + 11 | 9.69E + 20 | 4.32E + 09 | 2.42.E + 10 | 1.05E + 20 | 74.14 | 2.42E + 04 |
2014 | 2.12E + 11 | 3.70E + 20 | 1.75E + 09 | 6.65.E + 10 | 1.16E + 20 | 403.25 | 6.65E + 04 |
2018 | 4.63E + 10 | 4.52E + 20 | 9.76E + 09 | 2.66.E + 10 | 2.59E + 20 | 475.23 | 2.66E + 04 |
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Berrios, F., Campbell, D.E. & González, J.E. Assessment of long-term changes in the emergy indexes of an intertidal kelp bed in northern Chile: implications for fisheries management. J Appl Phycol 33, 4149–4167 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-021-02574-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-021-02574-1