Abstract
Flow at work is thought to be a dynamic and contextually bounded experience. Its relevance to optimal human functioning is well documented. Although flow theory suggests a mutually reinforcing association between flow and strengths use, with support by cross-sectional and short-term studies, the inter-relationship of flow at work and strengths use prospectively over long time periods is unknown. Using data collected from a panel of school staff (N = 253) across five measurement occasions over a three-year period, the current study investigated the extent to which flow at work and strength use were mutually supportive cross-sectionally and prospectively. Although flow and strengths were correlated within each time point, flow was not predictive of strength use nor was strength use predictive of flow at subsequent time points. Results point to the complexities of understanding dynamic psychological processes over time, which may differ from short-term relationships. Implications for measuring and supporting wellbeing at work, while taking into account its dynamic nature, are considered.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Annas, J. (2008). The phenomenology of virtue. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 7, 21–34.
Bakker, A. (2005). Flow among music teachers and their students: The crossover of peak experiences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 26–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2003.11.001
Bakker, A. (2008). The work-related flow inventory: Construction and initial validation of the WOLF. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72, 400–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2007.11.007
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman.
Bassi, M., & Delle Fave, A. (2012). Optimal experience among teachers: New insights into the work paradox. The Journal of Psychology, 146, 533–557.
Ceja, L., & Navarro, J. (2009). Dynamics of flow: A nonlinear perspective. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10, 665–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-008-9113-6
Ceja, L., & Navarro, J. (2011). Dynamic patterns of flow in the workplace: Characterizing within-individual variability using a complexity science approach. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32, 627–651. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.747
Ceja, L., & Navarro, J. (2012). ‘Suddenly I get into the zone’: Examining discontinuities and nonlinear changes in flow experiences at work. Human Relations, 65, 1101–1127. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726712447116
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233–255.
Ciarrochi, J., Atkins, P. W., Hayes, L. L., Sahdra, B. K., & Parker, P. (2016). Contextual positive psychology: Policy recommendations for implementing positive psychology into schools. Frontiers in Psychology, 7(1561), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01561
Colombo, L., & Zito, M. (2014). Demands, resources and the three dimensions of flow at work: A study among professional nurses. Open Journal of Nursing, 4, 255–264.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). Introduction. In M. Csikszentmihalyi & I. S. Csikszentmihalyi (Eds.), Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness (pp. 3–14). Cambridge University Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper and Row.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: HarperCollinsPublishers.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2003). Good business: Leadership, flow and the making of meaning. Viking.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014). The systems model of creativity: The collected works of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Springer.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Beattie, O. V. (1979). Life themes: A theoretical and empirical exploration of their origins and effects. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 19(l), 45–63.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & LeFevre, J. (1989). Optimal experience in work and leisure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 815–822.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Rathunde, K. (2014). The development of the person: An experiential perspective on the ontogenesis of psychological complexity. In M. Csikszentmihalyi (Ed.), Application of flow in human development and education (pp. 7–79). Springer.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Robinson, R. E. (2014). Culture, Time, and the development of a talent. In M. Csikszentmihalyi (Ed.), The systems model of creativity: The collected works of Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi (pp. 27–61). Springer.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Schneider, B. (2000). Becoming adult: How teenagers prepare for the world of work. Basic Books.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K., & Whalen, S. (1997). Talented teenagers: The roots of success and failure. Cambridge University Press.
Datu, J. A. D., & Mateo, N. J. (2015). Work-related flow dimensions differentially predict anxiety, life satisfaction, and work longevity among Filipino counsellors. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-015-9401-3
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum Press.
De Fraga, D. & Moneta, G. B. (2016). Flow at work as a Moderator of the Self-Determination Model of Work engagement. In L. Harmat, F. Ørsted Andersen, F. Ullén, J. Wright, & G. Sadlo (Eds.), Flow experience: Empirical research and applications (pp. 105–123). Switzerland: Springer.
Delle Fave, A. (2009). Optimal experience and meaning: Which relationship? Psychological Topics, 18(2), 285–302.
Delle Fave, A., & Massimini, . (2003). Optimal experience in work and leisure among teachers and physicians: Individual and bio-cultural implications. Leisure Studies, 22, 323–342.
Delle Fave, A., Massimini, F., & Bassi, M. (2011). Psychological selection and optimal experience across cultures: Social empowerment through personal growth. Springer.
Demerouti, E. (2006). Job characteristics, flow, and performance: The moderating role of conscientiousness. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11, 266–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.11.3.266
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Sonnentag, S., & Fullagar, C. J. (2012). Work-related flow and energy at work and at home: A study on the role of daily recovery. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33, 276–295. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.760
Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being. The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55, 34–43.
Dormann, C., & Griffin, M. A. (2015). Optimal time lags in panel studies. Psychological Methods, 20(4), 489–505. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000041.
Eisenberger, R., Jones, J. R., Stinglhamber, F., Shanock, L., & Randall, A. T. (2005). Flow experiences at work: For high need achievers alone? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 755–775. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.337
Fagerlind, A. C., Gustavsson, M., Johansson, G., & Ekberg, K. (2013). Experience of work-related flow: Does high decision latitude enhance benefits gained from job resources? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83, 161–170.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218–226.
Fullagar, C. J., & Kelloway, E. K. (2009). ‘Flow’ at work: An experience sampling approach. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 82, 595–615.
Gardner, H., Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Damon, W. (2001). Good work: When excellence and ethics meet. Basic Books.
Geyser, I., Geldenhuys, M., & Crous, F. (2015). The dimensionality of the Work related Flow Inventory (WOLF): A South African study. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 25(4), 282–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2015.1078084
Govindji, R., & Linley, P. A. (2007). Strengths use, self-concordance and well-being: Implications for strengths coaching and coaching psychologists. International Coaching Psychology Review, 2, 143–153.
Greenberger, E., & Sorensen, A. B. (1974). Toward a concept of psychosocial maturity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 3, 329–358.
Green, S., Oades, L. G., & Robinson, R. (2011). Positive education: Creating flourishing students, staff and schools. InPsych. April, pp. 16–17.
Happell, B., Gaskin, C. J., & Platania-phunga, C. (2014). The construct validity of the work-related flow inventory in a sample of Australian workers. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 149(1), 42–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2013.838539
Harackiewicz, J. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1998). The joint effects of target and purpose goals on intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 657–689.
Hefferon, K., Ashfield, A., Waters, L., & Synard, J. (2017). Understanding optimal human functioning—the ‘call for qual’ in exploring human flourishing and well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12, 211–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1225120
Hektner, J. M., Schmidt, J. A., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2007). Experience sampling method measuring the quality of everyday life. Sage Publications.
Hobfoll, S. E., Johnson, R. J., & Jackson, A. P. (2003). Resource loss, resource gain, and emotional outcomes among inner city women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 632–643.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indices in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.
Ignjatovic, C. (2020). Investigating flow at work and vital engagement of working adults across 3 years. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The University of Melbourne, Graduate School of Education, School of Positive Psychology, Victoria, Australia.
Ilies, R., Wagner, D., Wilson, K., Ceja, L., Johnson, M., DeRue, S., & Ilgen, D. (2017). Flow at work and basic psychological needs: Effects on well-being. Applied Psychology: an International Review, 66(1), 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12075
Inghilleri, P. (2014). Phenomenology of positive change: Social growth. In P. Inghilleri, G. Riva, & E. Riva (Eds.), Enabling positive change: Flow and complexity in daily experience (pp. 6–16). De Gruyter Open Ltd.
Kern, M. L., Park, N., Peterson, C., & Romer, D. (2017). The positive perspective on youth development. In Treating and preventing adolescent mental disorders: What we know and what we don’t know (v. 2). In In D. Romer & the Commission Chairs of the Adolescent Mental Health Initiative of the Annenberg Public Policy Center and the Sunnylands Trust (pp. 543–567). New York: Oxford University Press.
Kern, M. L., Williams, P., Spong, C., Colla, R., Sharma, K., Downie, A., Taylor, J. A., Sharp, S., Siokou, C., & Oades, L. G. (2020). Systems informed positive psychology. Journal of Positive Psychology, 15, 705–715. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2019.1639799.
Korn, M. A., Woodard, C. R., & Tucker, C. A. (2016). Positive character traits of special education staff: Commonalities and applications. International Journal of Special Education, 31(3), 1–26.
Lan, J., Wong, C.-S., Jiang, C., & Mao, Y. (2017). The effect of leadership on work-related flow: A moderated mediation model. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 38(2), 210–228. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-08-2015-0180
Lavigne, G. L., Forest, J., & Crevier-Braud, L. (2012). Passion at work and burnout: A two-study test of the mediating role of flow experiences. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 21(4), 518–546. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2011.578390.
Lavy, S., & Littman-Ovadia, H. (2016). My better self: Using strengths at work and work productivity, organizational citizenship behavior, and satisfaction. Journal of Career Development, 44(2), 95–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845316634056
Lindsley, D. H., Brass, D. J., & Thomas, J. B. (1995). Efficacy-performance spirals: A multilevel perspective. Academy of Management Review, 20, 645–678.
Linley, A. (2008). Average to A+: Realising strengths in yourself and others. CAPP Press.
Linley, P. A., & Harrington, S. (2006). Playing to your strengths. Psychologist, 19, 86–89.
Llorens, S., Salanova, M., & Rodríguez, A. M. (2013). How is flow experienced and by whom? Testing flow among occupations. Stress and Health, 29, 125–137.
Makikangas, A., Bakker, A. B., Aunola, K., & Demerouti, E. (2010). Job resources and flow at work: Modelling the relationship via latent growth curve and mixture model methodology. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83, 795–814.
Martin, A. J., & Jackson, S. A. (2008). Brief approaches to assessing task absorption and enhanced subjective experience: Examining ‘short’ and ‘core’ flow in diverse performance. Motivation and Emotion, 32(3), 141–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-008-9094-0.
Massimini, F., & Delle Fave, A. (2000). Individual development in a bio-cultural perspective. American Psychologist, 55, 24–33.
Meadows, D. H., Meadows, D. L., Randers, J., & Behrens, W. W., III. (1972). The limits to growth: A report for the club of Rome’s project on the predicament of mankind. Universe Books.
Moneta, G. B. (2012). Opportunity for creativity in the job as a moderator of the relation between trait intrinsic motivation and flow in work. Motivation and Emotion, 36, 491–503. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9278-5
Nakamura, J. (2011). Contexts of positive adult development. In S. I. Donaldson, M. Csikszentmihalyi, & J. Nakamura (Eds.), Applied positive psychology: Improving everyday life, health, schools, work, and society (pp. 185–202). Routledge.
Nakamura, J. (2014). Positive change and mentoring in Adulthood. In P. Inghilleri, G. Riva, & E. Riva (Eds.), Enabling positive change: Flow and complexity in daily experience (pp. 166–182). Berlin: De Gruyter Open.
Nakamura, J., & Condren, M. (2018). A systems perspective on the role mentors play in the cultivation of virtue. Journal of Moral Education, 47(3), 316–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2018.1444981
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005). The concept of Flow. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 89–105). Oxford University Press.
Nakamura, J., Shernoff, D., & Hooker, C. (2009). Good mentoring. Jossey Bass.
Olcar, D., Rijavec, M., & Golub, T. L. (2017). Primary school teachers’ life satisfaction: The role of life goals, basic psychological needs and flow at work. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9611-y
Peters, P., Poutsma, E., Van Der Heijden, B. I. J. M., Bakker, A. B., & De Bruijn, T. (2014). Enjoying new ways to work: An hrm-process approach to study flow. Human Resource Management, 53(2), 271–290.
Peterson, R., & Seligman, M. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and Classification. Oxford University Press.
R Core Team. (2014). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. http://www.R-project.org/.
Rathunde, K. (2015). Creating a context for flow: The importance of personal insight and experience. Presentation at the NAMTA adolescent workshop titled Adolescent Creativity, Collaboration and Discovery, at the AMI/USA Refresher Course, Atlanta, GA, February 13–16.
Rathunde, K., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2006). The developing person: An experiential perspective. In W. Damon & R. W. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and human development-6th Edition (pp. 465–515). Wiley.
Rathunde, K., & Isabella, R. (2017). Play, flow, and tailoring identity in middle adulthood. In J. Sinnott (Ed.), Identity flexibility during adulthood (pp. 211–232). Springer.
Revelle, W. (2015). Package ‘psych’. Retrieved from http://personality-project.org/r/psych.manual.pdf.
Rodríguez-Sánchez, A., Salanova, M., Cifre, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2011). When good is good: A virtuous circle of self-efficacy and flow at work among teachers. Revista De Psicología Social, 26(3), 427–441.
Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36. www.jstatsoft.org/v48/i02/.
Salanova, M., Bakker, A. B., & Llorens, S. (2006). Flow at work: Evidence for an upward spiral of personal and organizational resources. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-005-8854-8
Salanova, M., Schaufeli, Xanthopoulou, D., Xanthopoulou, D., & Bakker, A. B. (2010). The gain spiral of resources and work engagement: Sustaining a positive work life. In A. B. Bakker & M. P. Leiter (Eds.), Work engagement: A Handbook of essential theory and research (pp. 118–131). Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.
Schiepe-Tiska, A., & Engeser, S. (2017). Measuring flow at work. In C. Fullagar & A. DelleFave (Eds.), Flow at work; Measurement and Implications (pp. 28–49). Routledge.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. Random House.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A new understanding of happiness and wellbeing: The practical guide to using positive psychology to make you happier and healthier. Free Press.
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410
Senge, P. M. (2006). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday.
Slemp, G. R., Chin, T. C., Kern, M. L., Siokou, C., Loton, D., Oades, L. G., Vella-Brodrick, D. A., & Waters, L. (2017). Positive education in Australia: Practice, measurement, and future directions. In E. Fryenberg, A. J. Martin, & R. J. Collie (Eds.), Social and emotional learning in Australia and the Asia Pacific (pp. 101–122). Springer.
Smith, M. B., Bryan, L. K., & Vodanovich, S. J. (2012). The counter-intuitive effects of flow on positive leadership and employee attitudes: Incorporating positive psychology into the management of organizations. The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 15, 174–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/10887156.2012.701129
Tobert, S., & Moneta, G. B. (2013). Flow as a function of affect and coping in the workplace. Individual Differences Research, 11(3), 102–111.
Tomlinson-Keasey, C. (1993). Opportunities and challenges posed by archival data sets. In D. C. Funder, R. D. Parke, C. Tomlinson-Keasey, & K. Widaman (Eds.), APA science Vols. Studying lives through time: Personality and development (pp. 65–92). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10127-020.
Tse, D. C. K., Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2019). Beyond challenge-seeking and skill-building: Toward the lifespan developmental perspective on flow theory. The Journal of Positive Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2019.1579362
Trevino, L. K., & Webster, J. (1992). Flow in Computer-Mediated Communication; Electronic Mail and Voice Mail Evaluation and Impacts. Communication Research, 19(5), 539–573.
Williams, P., Kern, M. L., & Waters, L. (2015). A Longitudinal Examination of the Association Between Psychological Capital, perception of organizational virtues and work happiness in school staff. Psychol Well-Being, 5(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13612-015-0032-0
Williams, P., ø, M. L., & Waters, L. (2016). Inside-out-outside-in: A dual approach process model to developing work happiness. International Journal of Wellbeing, 6(2), 30–56. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v6i2.3
Weeks, J. (2013). Bringing together the best of science and practice in a K-12 schooling culture and context. Presented at the meeting of Positive Education Schools association, Wollongong, Australia.
Wood, A. M., Linley, P. A., Maltby, J., Kashdan, T. B., & Hurling, R. (2011). Using personal and psychological strengths leads to increases in well-being over time: A longitudinal study and the development of the strengths use questionnaire. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 15–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.004
Wrzesniewski, A., McCauley, C., Rozin, P., & Schwartz, B. (1997). Jobs, Careers, and Callings: People’s Relations to Their Work. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 21–33.
Zito, M., Bakker, A. B., Colombo, L., & Cortese, C. G. (2015). A two-step study for the Italian adaptation of the work-related flow (WOLF) inventory: The I-WOLF. Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 22(4), 553–570. https://doi.org/10.4473/TPM22.4.8
Zito, M., Cortese, C. G., & Colombo, L. (2016). Nurses’ exhaustion: The role of flow at work between job demands and job resources. Journal of Nursing Management, 24, 12–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12284
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ignjatovic, C., Kern, M.L. & Oades, L.G. Flow Support at Work: Examining the Relationship Between Strengths Use and Flow at Work Among School Staff over a Three-Year Period. J Happiness Stud 23, 455–475 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-021-00409-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-021-00409-x