Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Is the gap widening among universities? On research output inequality and its measurement in the Korean higher education system

  • Published:
Quality & Quantity Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examines whether the inequality between universities is increasing in terms of research output, in the context of the New Public Management (NPM) regime based higher education reform in South Korea. Recent reforms in higher education sectors around the world illustrate a number of characteristics of NPM, with performance-based funding standing out among others. Performance-based funding has brought up several concerns, especially with unintended consequences of the reforms such as a widening gap in the research activities of universities. We provide an exploratory case study of the South Korean higher education system where performance-based funding programs are rampant, using a novel panel dataset comprised of all the general four-year universities (n = 184) in 2009–2015. The descriptive analysis of the temporal trend of research output inequality among universities shows that the answer of whether the gap is widening or not depends greatly on the use of indices of inequality. We report the conflicting results between the ‘relative’ and ‘absolute’ inequality index when applied to the dataset. Our findings are followed by the discussion on the measurements of inequality and their axioms regarding the institutional Matthew effect, suggesting more consideration on the nature of the data and the context.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Performance-based funding here refers to various sorts of funding schemes based performance such as evaluation-, competition-, selection- and assessment-based funding analyzed in the previous literature.

  2. The four categories of journals classified by the NRF are (i) KCI (the citation index for domestic academic journals created by NRF), (ii) non-KCI domestic journals, (iii) SCI/SCOPUS (including SSCI, A&HCI, SCIE), and (iv) non-SCI/SCOPUS international journals.

  3. In our dataset, the numbers of publication counts are rounded to three decimal places.

  4. The package ‘ineq’ of R (Zeileis 2014) is used for the actual calculation of relative Gini coefficients. The absolute Gini coefficients were calculated by simply multiplying the mean value to the relative Gini coefficients (Niño-Zarazúa and Roope 2016).

  5. While the relative Gini coefficient ranges from zero (perfect equality) to one (perfect inequality), there is no upper bound for absolute Gini coefficients which depend on the mean value of the given attribute.

  6. One of the axioms for inequality measures is ‘anonymity’ so that the measures only refer to distribution of attributes without assigning or identifying the attributes to particular members of the group.

  7. Gradations on the right side of the figures are for the absolute Gini coefficients, which are converted by multiplying averages of the mean value of each publication to the left side gradations of the figures, which are for the relative Gini coefficients.

References

  • Allison, P.D.: Inequality and scientific productivity. Soc. Stud. Sci. 10, 163–179 (1980)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allison, P.D., Long, J.S.: Departmental effects on scientific productivity. Am. Sociolog. Rev. 55, 469–478 (1990)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allison, P.D., Stewart, J.A.: Productivity differences among scientists: evidence for accumulative advantage. Am. Sociolog. Rev. 39, 596–606 (1974)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allison, P.D., Long, J.S., Krauze, T.K.: Cumulative advantage and inequality in science. Am. Sociolog. Rev. 47, 615–625 (1982)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Altbach, P.G., Salmi, J. (eds.): The Road to Academic Excellence: The Making of World-Class Research Universities. World Bank, Washington, DC (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  • Amiel, Y., Cowell, F.: Thinking about inequality. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1999)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, A.B.: Health Inequality, Health Inequity, and Health Spending. In: Eyal, N., Hurst, S.A., Norheim, O.F., Wikler, D. (eds.) Inequalities in Health: Concepts, Measures, and Ethics, pp. 27–36. Oxford University Press, New York (2013)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, A.B., Brandolini, A.: On analyzing the world distribution of income. World Bank Econ. Rev. 24, 1–37 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Auranen, O., Nieminen, M.: University research funding and publication performance—an international comparison. Res. Policy 39, 822–834 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bae, M.: Regional universities show different responses to BK21 Plus initiative. Joongdo Ilbo. Retrieved from http://www.joongdo.co.kr/jsp/article/article_view.jsp?pq=201304080250 (2013). Accessed 31 July 2016 (in Korean)

  • Ban, S.-J.: Issues and tasks of government initiated financial support programs on universities. J. Educ. Policy 1, 139–160 (2017). (in Korean)

    Google Scholar 

  • Beerkens, M.: Competition and concentration in the academic research industry: an empirical analysis of the sector dynamics in Australia 1990–2008. Sci. Public Policy. 40, 157–170 (2013)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brint, S., Carr, C.E.: The scientific research output of U.S. research universities, 1980–2010: continuing dispersion, increasing concentration, or stable inequality? Minerva (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11024-017-9330-4

    Google Scholar 

  • Broucker, B., De Wit, K.: New public management in higher education. In: Huisman, J., de Boer, H., Dill, D.D., Souto-Otero, M. (eds.) The Palgrave International Handbook of Higher Education Policy and Governance, pp. 57–75. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London (2015)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Byun, K.: New public management in korean higher education: is it reality or another fad? Asia Pacific Educ. Rev. 9, 190–205 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chakravarty, S., Lugo, M.A.: Multidimensional indicators of inequality and poverty. In: Adler, M.D., Fleurbaey, M. (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Well-Being and Public Policy, pp. 246–285. Oxford University Press, New York (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  • Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Kline, P., Saez, E.: Where is the land of opportunity? The geography of intergenerational mobility in the United States. Q. J. Econ. 129, 1553–1623 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, S., Zarifa, D.: The stratification of universities: structural inequality in Canada and the United States. Res. Soc. Stratif. Mobil. 30, 143–158 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Boer, H., Enders, J., Schimank, U.: On the Way towards New Public Management? The Governance of University Systems in England, the Netherlands, Austria, and Germany. In: Jansen, D. (ed.) New Forms of Governance in Research Organizations, pp. 137–152. Springer, Dordrecht (2007)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • de Price, D.J.S.: Little Science, Big Science. Columbia University Press, New York (1963)

    Google Scholar 

  • DGUGSPress.: Comment on BK21 Plus initiative winner selection result. DGUGSpress. Retrieved from http://www.dgugspress.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=1116 (2013). Accessed 31 July 2016 (in Korean)

  • Etzkowitz, H.: The evolution of the entrepreneurial university. Int. J. Technol. Glob. 1, 64–77 (2004)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geiger, R.L.: Knowledge and Money: Research Universities and the Paradox of the Marketplace. Stanford University Press, Stanford (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  • Geuna, A., Rossi, F.: The University and the Economy: Pathways to Growth and Economic Development. Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham (2015)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Halffman, W., Leydesdorff, L.: Is inequality among universities increasing? Gini coefficients and the Elusive Rise of Elite Universities. Minerva 48, 55–72 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Han, H.: Jeonbuk Univ, Education-Research-Globalization three elements… Winning 7 funding initiatives. Segye Ilbo. Retrieved from http://www.segye.com/content/html/2015/11/26/20151126003204.html (2015). Accessed 31 July 2016 (in Korean)

  • Han, J., Kim, S.: How rankings change universities and academic fields in Korea. Korean J. Sociolog. 51, 1–37 (2017). (in Korean)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, D.: Performance-based university research funding systems. Res. Policy 41, 251–261 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hillman, N.: Why Performance-Based College Funding Doesn’t Work. The Century Foundation. Retrieved from https://tcf.org/content/report/why-performance-based-college-funding-doesnt-work/ (2016). Accessed 8 Nov 2017

  • Hur, J.-Y., Bessey, D.: A comparison of higher education reform in South Korea and Germany. Asia Pacific Educ. Rev. 14, 113–123 (2013)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jongbloed, B., Lepori, B.: The funding of research in higher education: mixed models and mixed results. In: Huisman, J., de Boer, H., Dill, D.D., Souto-Otero, M. (eds.) The Palgrave International Handbook of Higher Education Policy and Governance, pp. 439–462. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London (2015)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, Y.: “Government annihilates small-strong univ.”…President of Sogang Univ. resists to their drop out of BK21. Yonhapnews. Retrieved from http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=102&oid=001&aid=0006436542 (2013). Accessed 31 July 2016 (in Korean)

  • Kim, H.-H.: An Analysis of Government Funding Policy and the Finance Structure of Universities in Korea. Seoul National University, Ph.D. Diss (2014). (in Korean)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, D.H., Bak, H.-J.: How do performance-based incentives influence inequality among scientists’ research performance? In: 2016 APPAM International Conference, pp. 1–30. London (2016)

  • Kimura, K.: A micro-macro linkage in the measurement of inequality: another look at the Gini coefficient. Qual. Quant. 28, 83–97 (1994)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kolm, S.-C.: Unequal inequalities. I. J. Econ. Theory 12, 416–442 (1976)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krücken, G.: Higher education reforms and unintended consequences: a research agenda. Stud. High. Educ. 39, 1439–1450 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kwon, H.: LINC “We can select more ‘site-adhered’ rather than ‘technological innovation based’”. The Professors Times. Retrieved from http://www.kyosu.net/news/articleView.html?idxno=24857 (2012). Accessed 31 July 2016 (in Korean)

  • Kwon, H.: BK21 Plus Why did applications converged on ‘small project team’?. The Professors Times. Retrieved from http://www.kyosu.net/news/articleView.html?idxno=27503 (2013). Accessed 31 July 2016 (in Korean)

  • Lau, Y., Rosen, H.S.: Are universities becoming more unequal? Rev. High. Educ. 39, 479–514 (2016)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, E., Choi, Y.: “Demanding STEM and also liberal arts…Whose tune should we dance to”. Donga Ilbo. Retrieved from http://news.donga.com/3/all/20160328/77244561/1 (2016). Accessed 31 July 2016 (in Korean)

  • Leišytė, L.: New public management and research productivity—a precarious state of affairs of academic work in The Netherlands. Stud. High. Educ. 41, 828–846 (2016)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leydesdorff, L., Park, H.W.: Full and fractional counting in bibliometric networks. J. Informetr. 11, 117–120 (2017)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lim, K.: University funding initiatives, SNU 46.5 billion won ranked at the 1st. The Korea Economic Daily. Retrieved from http://www.hankyung.com/news/app/newsview.php?aid=2015100964141&intype=1 (2015). Accessed 31 July 2016. (in Korean)

  • Lotka, A.: The frequency distribution of scientific productivity. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 16, 317–323 (1926)

    Google Scholar 

  • Merton, R.K.: The matthew effect in science: the reward and communication systems of science are considered. Science 159(80), 56–63 (1968)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MEST (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology).: Future Korea opening with creative talents and advancement of science and technology. In: 2011 Operational Report, 17 December 2010b. (in Korean)

  • MEST (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology).: Ten-Year Basic Plan for Higher Education Funding. (2010a). (in Korean)

  • Milanovic, B.: Global Inequality: A New Approach for the Age of Globalization. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (2016)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Moed, H.F., van Leeuwen, T.N., Visser, M.S.: Trends in publication output and impact of universities in The Netherlands. Res. Eval. 8, 60–67 (1999)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Münch, R.: Academic Capitalism: Universities in the Global Struggle for Excellence. Routledge, Abingdon (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  • Münch, R.: Academic capitalism. In: Thompson, W.R. (ed.) Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. Oxford University Press, USA (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  • Münch, R., Schäfer, L.O.: Rankings, diversity and the power of renewal in science. A comparison between Germany, The UK and The US. Eur. J. Educ. 49, 60–76 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myklebust, J.P., Dobson, I.R.: Academics question pressure to merge universities, http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20160916170857191, (2016)

  • NABO (National Assembly Budget Office).: Evaluation of World Class University (WCU) program. Program Evaluation 11–11. (2011). (in Korean)

  • Niño-Zarazúa, M., Roope, L., Tarp, F.: Global inequality: relatively lower, absolutely higher. Rev. Income Wealth (2016). https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12240

    Google Scholar 

  • NRF (National Research Foundation of Korea).: 2015 University research activity survey analysis report. (2015). (in Korean)

  • Park, C.: Daejeon universities show lukewarm reactions to ‘BK21 Plus’…‘a pie in the sky’. News1 Korea. Retrieved from http://news1.kr/articles/?1141770 (2013). Accessed 31 July 2016 (in Korean)

  • Park, Y.: Government-led reform makes universities as private institutions for getting a job. The Korea Economic Daily. Retrieved from http://www.hankyung.com/news/app/newsview.php?aid=2015040797391&intype=1 (2015). Accessed 31 July 2016 (in Korean)

  • Park, H.W., Leydesdorff, L.: Longitudinal trends in networks of university-industry-government relations in South Korea: the role of programmatic incentives. Res. Policy 39, 640–649 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, H.W., Yoon, J., Leydesdorff, L.: The normalization of co-authorship networks in the bibliometric evaluation: the government stimulation programs of China and Korea. Scientometrics 109, 1017–1036 (2016)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ravallion, M.: Income inequality in the developing world. Science 344(80), 851–855 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shibayama, S.: Distribution of academic research funds: a case of Japanese national research grant. Scientometrics 88, 43–60 (2011)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shin, J.C.: Building world-class research university: the Brain Korea 21 project. High. Educ. 58, 669–688 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shin, J.C.: South Korea: decentralized centralization–fading shared governance and rising managerialism. In: Locke, W., Cummings, W.K., Fisher, D. (eds.) Changing Governance and Management in Higher Education, pp. 321–342. Springer, Netherlands (2011)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Shin, J.C.: Higher education development in Korea: western university ideas, Confucian tradition, and economic development. High. Educ. 64, 59–72 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shin, H., Kim, B.: Korea University and Yonsei University give up LINC initiative, ‘Why?’. Daily University News Network. Retrieved from http://news.unn.net/news/articleView.html?idxno=107813 (2012). Accessed 31 July 2016 (in Korean)

  • Sin, S.-C.J.: Longitudinal trends in internationalisation, collaboration types, and citation impact: a bibliometric analysis of seven LIS journals (1980–2008). J. Libr. Inf. Stud. 9, 27–49 (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  • Stephan, P.E., Levin, S.G.: Inequality in scientific performance: adjustment for attribution and journal impact. Soc. Stud. Sci. 21, 351–368 (1991)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ville, S., Valadkhani, A., O’Brien, M.: The distribution of research performance across Australian Universities, 1992–2003, and its implications for “Building Diversity”. Aust. Econ. Pap. 45, 343–361 (2006)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J.: Distributions of scientific funding across universities and research disciplines. J. Informetr. 9, 183–196 (2015)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, Y.: “Undemocracy”: inequalities in science. Science 344(80), 809–810 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, H.: Korean education in changing economic and demographic contexts. In: Park, H., Kim, K. (eds.) Korean Education in Changing Economic and Demographic Contexts, pp. 97–113. Springer, Singapore (2014)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Zeileis, A.: Ineq: measuring inequality, concentration, and poverty. R package version 0.2-13. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=ineq. (2014)

  • Zheng, M., Junpeng, Y., Cheng, S., Zhiyu, H., Zhenglu, Y., Yuntao, P., Yishan, W.: Using Lorenz Curve and Gini Coefficient to reflect the inequality degree of S & T publications: an examination of the institutional distribution of publications in China and other Countries. In: Proceedings of Fourth International Conference on Webometrics, Informetrics and Scientometrics & Ninth COLLNET Meeting, pp. 1–9 (2008)

  • Zhi, Q., Meng, T.: Funding allocation, inequality, and scientific research output: an empirical study based on the life science sector of Natural Science Foundation of China. Scientometrics 106, 603–628 (2016)

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Graduate School of Science and Technology Policy, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea

    Joonha Jeon & So Young Kim

Authors
  1. Joonha Jeon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. So Young Kim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to So Young Kim.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Jeon, J., Kim, S.Y. Is the gap widening among universities? On research output inequality and its measurement in the Korean higher education system. Qual Quant 52, 589–606 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0652-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0652-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation