Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The relationship of teacher ratings of executive functions to emergent literacy in Head Start

  • Published:
Reading and Writing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the concurrent relationships between selected teacher-rated executive function (EF) and a comprehensive array of emergent literacy skills in preschool children after adjusting for targeted covariates including at-risk status. The sample comprised 114 three-year-olds who were attending Head Start preschool. The teacher-completed Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool was used to generate three predictor variables: Inhibitory Self-Control, Flexibility, and Emergent Metacognition. The emergent literacy outcomes included the Teacher Ratings of Oral Language and Literacy Reading, Writing, and Language scales, Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale 5 Vocabulary Subtest, Test of Early Reading-3 Convention Subtest, and Print Knowledge and Phonological Awareness subtests from the Test of Preschool Early Literacy. Findings revealed that after controlling for selected covariates (age, gender, classroom) and at-risk status, when the three EF indices were included in the model the amount of variance significantly increased for all of the emergent literacy outcomes, with the total variance accounted for ranging from 32% (Phonological Awareness) to 59% (pre-Writing). Emergent Metacognition was a significant predictor for nearly every outcome except Phonological Awareness and Reading Conventions; Flexibility and Inhibitory Self-Control were significant predictors of Language. Significant interactions were present for at-risk status and teacher ratings of both Flexibility and Inhibitory on TERA-3 Conventions, but these findings appeared to be affected more by the not at-risk group than the at-risk group. Results reinforce the potential added importance of teacher ratings of EF, particularly with respect to the integrity of early developing EF, in the prediction of emergent literacy skills in young preschool children.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allan, N. P., Hume, L. E., Allan, D. M., Farrington, A. L., & Lonigan, C. J. (2014). Relations between inhibitory control and the development of academic skills in preschool and kindergarten: A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology,50, 2368–2379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allan, N. P., & Lonigan, C. J. (2011). Examining the dimensionality of effortful control in preschool children and its relation to academic and socioemotional indicators. Developmental Psychology,47, 905–915.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology,2, 71–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, R., Barnes, S. P., Park, C., Sokolovic, N., & Jones, S. M. (2018). Executive function mapping project measures compendium: A resource for selecting measures related to executive function and other regulation-related skills in early childhood. OPRE Report #2018-59, Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

  • Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development,81, 1641–1660.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children’s functioning at school entry. American Psychologist,57(2), 111–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, C., & Raver, C. (2016). Poverty, stress, and brain development: New directions for prevention and intervention. Academic Pediatrics,16, S30–S36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development,78, 647–663.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bull, R., Espy, K. A., & Wiebe, S. A. (2008). Short-term memory, working memory, and executive functioning in preschoolers: Longitudinal predictors of mathematical achievement at age 7 years. Developmental Neuropsychology,33, 205–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2016). Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do no. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience,18, 34–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson, D. K., & Chaney, C. (1997). Early phonological awareness profile. Newton, MA.: Education Development Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson, D. K., McCabe, A., & Sprague, K. (2001). Teacher rating of oral language and literacy development: A research-based tool. CIERA Report #3-016.

  • Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1997). Peabody Picture Vocabulary test (3rd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Escobar, J. P., Rosas-Díaz, R., Ceric, F., Aparicio, A., Arango, P., Arroyo, R., et al. (2018). The role of executive functions in the relation between socioeconomic level and the development of reading and math skills/El rol de las functiones ejecutivas en la relación entre el nivel socioeconómico y el desarrollo de habilidades lectoras y matemáticas. Cultura y Educación,30, 368–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Espy, K. A., McDiarmid, M. M., Cwik, M. F., Stalets, M. M., Hamby, A., & Senn, T. E. (2004). The Contribution of executive functions to emergent mathematic skills in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology,26, 465–486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, E. B., & Hatch, J. A. (1989). Emergent literacy: Reconceptualizing kindergarten practice. Childhood Education,66, 21–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuhs, M. W., Farran, D. C., & Nesbitt, K. T. (2015). Prekindergarten children’s executive functioning skills and achievement gains: The utility of direct assessments and teacher ratings. Journal of Educational Psychology,107, 207–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garon, N., Byrson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin,134, 31–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gioia, G., Espy, K. A., & Isquith, P. K. (2003). The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version. Lutz, FL: PAR Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Head Start Early Childhood Learning and Knowledge Center. (2019). Head Start approach to school readiness. Retrieved from https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/school-readiness/article/head-start-approach-school-readiness-overview#. Retrieved on November 5, 2019.

  • Heath, S. M., Bishop, D. V. M., Bloor, K. E., Boyle, G. L., Fletcher, J., Hogben, J. H., et al. (2014). A spotlight on preschool: The influence of family factors on children’s early literacy skills. PLoS ONE,9, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz-Kraus, T., Schmitz, R., Hutton, J. S., & Schumacher, J. (2017). How to create a successful reader? Milestones in reading development from birth to adolescence. Acta Paediatrica,106, 534–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, R., & Parkinson, J. (2015). The potential for school-based interventions that target executive function to improve academic achievement: A review. Review of Educational Research,85, 512–552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lonigan, C. J., Allan, D. M., & Phillips, B. M. (2017). Examining the predictive relations between two aspects of self-regulation and growth in preschool children’s early literacy skills. Developmental Psychology,53, 63–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lonigan, C. J., Burgess, S. R., & Anthony, J. L. (2000). Development of emergent literacy and early reading skills in preschool children: Evidence from a latent-variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology,36, 596–613.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lonigan, C. J., Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (2007). Test of Preschool Early Literacy. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, S. E., & Delaney, H. D. (2004). Designing experiments and analyzing data: A model comparison perspective (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L., Jewkes, A. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2007). Links between behavioral regulation and preschoolers’ literacy, vocabulary, and math skills. Developmental Psychology,43, 947–949.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McConnell, S. R. (2002). Individual growth and development indicators. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, M. R., Giesbrecht, G. F., Müller, U., McInerney, R. J., & Kerns, K. A. (2013). A latent variable approach to determining the structure of executive function in preschool children. Journal of Cognition and Development,13, 395–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology,41, 49–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelder, J. A. (1994). The statistics of linear models: Back to basics. Statistics and Computing,4, 221–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nesbitt, K. T., Farran, D. C., & Fuhs, M. W. (2015). Executive function skills and academic achievement gains in prekindergarten: Contributions of learning-related behaviors. Developmental Psychology,51, 865–878.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poinitz, C. C., McClelland, M. M., Matthews, J. S., & Morrison, F. J. (2009). A structured observation of behavioral self-regulation and its contribution to kindergarten outcomes. Developmental Psychology,45, 605–619.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Psychological Corporation. (1996). Stanford Achievement Test Series (9th ed.). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Brace & Company, Educational Measurement.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puranik, C. S., & Lonigan, C. J. (2011). From scribbles to scrabble: Preschool children’s developing knowledge of written expression. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal,24, 567–581.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puranik, C. S., & Lonigan, C. J. (2014). Emergent writing in preschoolers: Preliminary evidence for a theoretical framework. Reading Research Quarterly,49, 453–467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Purpura, D. J., Schmitt, S. A., & Ganley, C. M. (2017). Foundations of mathematics and literacy: The role of executive functioning components. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,153, 15–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, D. K., Hresko, W. P., & Hammill, D. D. (2001). The Test of Early Reading Ability. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roid, G. H. (2003). Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales (5th ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roid, G. H. (2005). Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales for Early Childhood (5th ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skibbe, L. E., Montroy, J. J., Bowles, R. P., & Morrison, F. J. (2019). Self-regulation and development of literacy and language achievement from preschool through second grade. Early Childhood Research Quarterly,46, 240–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith-Donald, R., Raver, C. C., Hayes, T., & Richardson, B. (2007). Preliminary construct and concurrent validity of the Preschool Self-Regulation Assessment (PSRA) for field-based research. Early Childhood Research Quarterly,22, 173–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stapleton, L. M., McNeish, D. M., & Yang, J. S. (2016). Multilevel and single-level models for measured and latent variables when data are clustered. Educational Psychologist,51(3–4), 317–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teale, W. H., & Sulzby, E. (1986). Emergent literacy: Writing and reading. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Practitioner review: Do performance-based measures and ratings of executive function assess the same construct? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,54, 131–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiland, C., & Yoshikawa, H. (2013). Impacts of a prekindergarten program on children’s mathematics, language, literacy, executive function, and emotional skills. Child Development,84, 2112–2130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Welsh, J. A., Nix, R. L., Blair, C., Bierman, K. L., & Nelson, K. E. (2010). The development of cognitive skills and gains in academic school readiness for children from low-income families. Journal of Educational Psychology,102, 43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehurst, G. J., & Lonigan, C. J. (2009). Get ready to read-revised. Washington, DC: Pearson Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiebe, S. A., Sheffield, T., Nelson, J. M., Clark, C. A. C., Chevalier, N., & Espy, K. A. (2011). The structure of executive function in 3-year-olds. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,108, 436–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, M. T., Blair, C. B., Wirth, R. J., & Greenberg, M. (2010). The measurement of executive function at age 3 years: Psychometric properties and criterion validity of a new battery of tasks. Psychological Assessment,22, 306–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, M. T., Kupersmidt, J. B., & Voegler-Lee, M. E. (2012). Is preschool executive function causally related to academic achievement? Child Neuropsychology,18, 79–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, M. T., Magnus, B., Vernon-Feagans, L., Blair, C. B., & the Family Life Project Investigators. (2017). Developmental delays in executive function from 3 to 5 years of age predict kindergarten academic readiness. Journal of Learning Disabilities,50, 359–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, M. T., Wylie, A. C., & Little, M. H. (2019). Testing longitudinal associations between executive function and academic achievement. Developmental Psychology,55, 767–779.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, S. B., & Lonigan, C. J. (2009). An evaluation of two emergent literacy screening tools for preschool children. Annals of Dyslexia,59(2), 115–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, R. W. (1998). Woodcock Reading Mastery—Revised NU. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This project was supported by funding awarded to Dr. Hooper from the Institute for Education Science, U.S. Department of Education (#R305A170529).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Allied Health Sciences, 1028 Bondurant Hall, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA

    Stephen R. Hooper, Lara-Jeane C. Costa, Melissa B. Green, Stephanie R. Catlett, Alexandra Barker, Edmund Fernandez & Richard A. Faldowski

Authors
  1. Stephen R. Hooper
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lara-Jeane C. Costa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Melissa B. Green
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Stephanie R. Catlett
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Alexandra Barker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Edmund Fernandez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Richard A. Faldowski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stephen R. Hooper.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hooper, S.R., Costa, LJ.C., Green, M.B. et al. The relationship of teacher ratings of executive functions to emergent literacy in Head Start. Read Writ 33, 963–989 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-019-09992-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-019-09992-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation