Abstract
Leisure reading is associated with several important educational and cognitive benefits, and yet fewer and fewer young adults are reading in their free time. To better study what drives leisure reading in undergraduates, we developed the Predictors of Leisure Reading (PoLR) scale. The PoLR investigates key predictors of leisure reading, namely reading motivations, obstacles, attitudes, and interests. We examined the PoLR’s ability to predict language skills in 200 undergraduates, both directly and indirectly via exposure to fiction and nonfiction texts. Language skills were measured with a diverse battery of tasks, including items from two sections of the Scholastic Aptitude Test. We found that reading enjoyment predicts better verbal abilities, and this was often explained via exposure to fiction rather than nonfiction. In contrast, participants who reported reading due to extrinsic pressures typically had weaker verbal abilities, often explained by stronger associations with nonfiction. This pattern was observed across the raw correlations and in a series of path analyses. In sum, it was ‘reading enjoyment’ and ‘identifying as a reader’ that uniquely predicted better verbal abilities in our undergraduate sample. The importance of these findings is discussed in relation to fostering reading enjoyment throughout the various stages of formal education.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
These include measures of need for cognition, empathy, need to belong, personality traits, need for affect, and devices used for reading. Detail and data are available upon request.
References
Acheson, D. J., Wells, J. B., & MacDonald, M. C. (2008). New and updated tests of print exposure and reading abilities in college students. Behavior Research Methods, 40(1), 278–289. https://doi.org/10.3758/brm.40.1.278.
Applegate, A. J., & Applegate, M. D. (2004). The Peter Effect: Reading habits and attitudes of preservice teachers. The Reading Teacher, 57(6), 554–563.
Applegate, A. J., Applegate, M. D., Mercantini, M. A., McGeehan, C. M., Cobb, J. B., DeBoy, J. R., et al. (2014). The Peter Effect revisited: Reading habits and attitudes of college students. Literacy Research and Instruction, 53(3), 188–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2014.898719.
Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2009). Exploratory structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 16(3), 397–438. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510903008204.
Baker, L., Scher, D., & Mackler, K. (1997). Home and family influences on motivations for reading. Educational Psychologist, 32(3), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3203_2.
Bavishi, A., Slade, M., & Levy, B. (2016). A chapter a day: Association of book reading with longevity. Social Science and Medicine, 164, 44–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.07.014.
Becker, M., McElvany, N., & Kortenbruck, M. (2010). Intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation as predictors of reading literacy: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(4), 773–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020084.
Brinda, W. (2011). A “ladder to literacy” engages reluctant readers. Middle School Journal, 43(2), 8–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.2011.11461796.
Browne, M. W. (2001). An overview of analytic rotation in exploratory factor analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 36(1), 111–150. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3601_05.
Cain, S. (2019). ‘She’s a prophet’: handmaids gather for Margaret Atwood’s midnight launch of The Testaments. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/sep/10/shes-a-prophet-handmaids-gather-for-margaret-atwoods-midnight-launch-of-the-testaments
Conradi, K., Jang, B. G., & McKenna, M. (2014). Motivational terminology in reading research: A conceptual review. Educational Psychology Review, 26, 127–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-013-9245-z.
Cunningham, A. E., Perry, K. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (2001). Converging evidence for the concept of orthographic processing. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 14, 549–568. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1011100226798.
Davis, M., Tonks, S., Hock, M., Wang, W., & Rodriguez, A. (2018). A review of reading motivation scales. Reading Psychology, 39(2), 121–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2017.1400482.
Enders, C. K. (2013). Dealing with missing data in developmental research. Child Development Perspectives, 7(1), 27–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12008.
Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS. Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
Finney, S. J., & DiStefano, C. (2013). Nonnormal and categorical data in structural equation modeling. In G. R. Hancock & R. O. Mueller (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: A second course (2nd ed., pp. 439–492). Charlotte: Information Age.
Flood, A. (2019). Death of the novel is greatly exaggerated, say UK booksellers. The Guardian. Retrieved January 12, 2021 from https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/jun/28/death-of-the-novel-is-greatly-exaggerated-say-uk-booksellers
Fong, K., Mullin, J. B., & Mar, R. A. (2013). What you read matters: The role of fiction genre in predicting interpersonal sensitivity. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 7(4), 370–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034084.
Gear, A., Wizniak, R., & Cameron, J. (2004). Rewards for reading a review of seven programs. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 50(2), 200–203.
Gerrig, R. J. (1993). Experiencing narrative worlds. London: Yale University Press.
Graesser, A., Golding, J. M., & Long, D. L. (1991). Narrative representation and comprehension. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 171–205). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Hayton, J. C., Allen, D. G., & Scarpello, V. (2004). Factor retention decisions in exploratory factor analysis: A tutorial on parallel analysis. Organizational Research Methods, 7(2), 191–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428104263675.
Hebbecker, K., Förster, N., & Souvignier, E. (2019). Reciprocal effects between reading achievement and intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Scientific Studies of Reading, 23(5), 419–436. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2019.1598413.
Ho, A. N., & Guthrie, J. T. (2013). Patterns of association among multiple motivations and aspects of achievement in reading. Reading Psychology, 34(2), 101–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2011.596255.
Jensen, J. D., Christy, K., Krakow, M., John, K., & Martins, N. (2016). Narrative transportability, leisure reading, and genre preference in children 9-13 years old. The Journal of Educational Research, 109(6), 666–674. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2015.1034351.
Kavanagh, L. (2019). Relations between children’s reading motivation, activity and performance at the end of primary school. Journal of Research in Reading, 42(3–4), 562–582. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12284.
Kim, J. S., Hemphill, L., Troyer, M., Thomson, J. M., Jones, S. M., LaRusso, M. D., et al. (2016). Engaging struggling adolescent readers to improve reading skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(3), 357–384. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.171.
Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Logan, S., Medford, E., & Hughes, N. (2011). The importance of intrinsic motivation for high and low ability readers’ reading comprehension performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(1), 124–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.09.011.
Mar, R. A. (2018). Stories and the promotion of social cognition. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(4), 257–262. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417749654.
Mar, R. A., Oatley, K., Djikic, M., & Mullin, J. (2011). Emotion and narrative fiction: Interactive influences before, during, and after reading. Cognition and Emotion, 25(5), 818–833. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.515151.
Mar, R. A., Oatley, K., Hirsh, J., dela Paz, J., & Peterson, J. B. (2006). Bookworms versus nerds: Exposure to fiction versus non-fiction, divergent associations with social ability, and the simulation of fictional social worlds. Journal of Research in Personality, 40(5), 694–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.08.002.
Mar, R. A., & Rain, M. (2015). Narrative fiction and expository nonfiction differentially predict verbal ability. Scientific Studies of Reading, 19(6), 419–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2015.1069296.
Margolin, S., & Snyder, N. (2018). It may not be that difficult the second time around: the effects of rereading on the comprehension and metacomprehension of negated text. Journal of Research in Reading, 41(2), 392–402. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12114.
Marsh, H. W., Guo, J., Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., & Craven, R. G. (2020). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), and set-ESEM: Optimal balance between goodness of fit and parsimony. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 55(1), 102–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2019.1602503.
Martin-Chang, S. L., & Gould, O. N. (2008). Revisiting print exposure: exploring differential links to vocabulary, comprehension and reading rate. Journal of Research in Reading, 31(3), 273–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2008.00371.x.
Martin-Chang, S. L., & Levy, B. A. (2005). Fluency transfer: Differential gains in reading speed and accuracy following isolated word and context training. Reading and Writing, 18, 343–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-005-0668-x.
Martin-Chang, S. L., Levy, B. A., & O’Neil, S. (2007). Word acquisition, retention, and transfer: Findings from contextual and isolated word training. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 96(1), 37–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2006.08.004.
McGeown, S. P., Duncan, L. G., Griffiths, Y. M., & Stothard, S. E. (2015). Exploring the relationship between adolescent’s reading skills, reading motivation and reading habits. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 28, 545–569. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-014-9537-9.
McKool, S. S., & Gespass, S. (2009). Does Johnny’s reading teacher love to read? How teachers’ personal reading habits affect instructional practices. Literacy Research and Instruction, 48(3), 264–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388070802443700.
Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D. (2002). A feeling for fiction: Becoming what we behold. Poetics, 30(4), 221–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-422x(02)00011-6.
Mol, S. E., & Bus, A. G. (2011). To read or not to read: A meta-analysis of print exposure from infancy to early adulthood. Psychological Bulletin, 137(2), 267–296. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021890.
Mol, S. E., & Jolles, J. (2014). Reading enjoyment amongst non-leisure readers can affect achievement in secondary school. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01214.
Mumper, M. L., & Gerrig, R. J. (2017). Leisure reading and social cognition: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 11(1), 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000089.
Nathanson, S., Pruslow, J., & Levitt, R. (2008). The reading habits and literacy attitudes of inservice and prospective teachers: Results of a questionnaire survey. Journal of Teacher Education, 59, 313–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487108321685.
National Endowment for the Arts (2007). To read or not to read: A question of national consequence. Retrieved January 12, 2021 from https://www.arts.gov/sites/default/files/ToRead.pdf
Ritchie, S. J., & Bates, T. C. (2013). Enduring links from childhood mathematics and reading achievement to adult socioeconomic status. Psychological Science, 24(7), 1301–1308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612466268.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68.
Schutte, N., & Malouff, J. (2007). Dimensions of reading motivation: Development of an adult reading motivation scale. Reading Psychology, 28(5), 469–489. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702710701568991.
Sénéchal, M. (2006). Testing the home literacy model: Parental involvement in kindergarten is differentially related to grade 4 reading comprehension, fluency, spelling, and reading for pleasure. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10(1), 59–87. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr1001_4.
Sénéchal, M., & LeFevre, J. (2002). Parental involvement in the development of children’s reading skill: A five-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 73(2), 445–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00417.
Sikora, J., Evans, M. D. R., & Kelley, J. (2019). Scholarly culture: How books in adolescence enhance adult literacy, numeracy and technology skills in 31 societies. Social Science Research, 77, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2018.10.003.
Spear-Swerling, L., Brucker, P. O., & Alfano, P. O. (2010). Relationships between sixth-graders’ reading comprehension and two different measures of print exposure. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 23, 73–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-008-9152-8.
Stanovich, K. E., West, R. F., Cunningham, A. E., Cipielewski, J., & Siddiqui, S. (1996). The role of inadequate print exposure as a determinant of reading comprehension problems. In C. Cornoldi & J. Oakhill (Eds.), Reading comprehension difficulties. Processes and intervention (pp. 15–82). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Stutz, F., Schaffner, E., & Schiefele, U. (2016). Relations among reading motivation, reading amount, and reading comprehension in the early elementary grades. Learning and Individual Differences, 45, 101–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.11.022.
Tremblay, B., Rodrigues, M. L., & Martin-Chang, S. (2020). From storybooks to novels: A retrospective approach linking print exposure in childhood to adolescence. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 571033. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.571033.
Troyer, M., Kim, J. S., Hale, E., Wantchekon, K., & Armstrong, C. (2019). Relations among intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, reading amount, and comprehension: A conceptual replication. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 32, 1197–1218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9907-9.
Vezzali, L., Stathi, S., Giovannini, D., Capozza, D., & Trifiletti, E. (2015). The greatest magic of Harry Potter: Reducing prejudice. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 45(2), 105–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12279.
Weinberger, J. (1996). A longitudinal study of children’s early literacy experiences at home and later literacy development at home and school. Journal of Research in Reading, 19(1), 14–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.1996.tb00083.x.
Wigfield, A., & Guthrie, J. T. (1997). Relations of children’s motivation for reading to the amount and breadth of their reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3), 420–432. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.89.3.420.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by a Grant to RM from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (#435-2012-1420). We thank Colin Decker (University of Toronto) for his assistance with some of the statistical analyses.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Martin-Chang, S., Kozak, S., Levesque, K.C. et al. What’s your pleasure? exploring the predictors of leisure reading for fiction and nonfiction. Read Writ 34, 1387–1414 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-020-10112-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-020-10112-7