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Negotiating the NGO/Social Movement Dichotomy: Evidence from Punjab, India

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Abstract

Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) and social movements are often juxtaposed as two distinct modes of action within civil society. While NGOs are seen as being linked to the interests of donors and being composed primarily of middle-class professionals, social movements are presented as a more authentic expression of grassroots perspectives. While academic literature compares and contrasts these two forms of organisation in the abstract, there has been comparatively little research exploring how civil society actors themselves conceptualise the NGO/social movement dichotomy and how this influences their strategic decision making. The Kheti Virasat Mission (KVM), working in the North Indian state of Punjab, is a useful case for exploring this issue. KVM is one of a growing number of groups working in the field of sustainable agriculture that has chosen to adopt a social movement model of organisation and distance itself from NGOs. The case helps illuminate how and why social movements differentiate themselves from NGOs and the challenges they face in doing so.

Résumé

Les Organisations Non-Gouvernementales (ONG) et les mouvements sociaux sont souvent tenus pour représentatifs de deux modes d’action distincts au sein de la société civile. Alors que les ONG sont perçues comme étant liées aux intérêts de leurs donateurs et principalement composées d’un personnel issu des classes moyennes, les mouvements sociaux sont considérés comme une expression plus authentique des mentalités populaires. Alors que les chercheurs ont comparé et contrasté ces deux formes d’organisation d’un point de vue théorique, il n’y a, en comparaison, que peu d’études sur la façon dont les acteurs de la société civile eux-mêmes conceptualisent la dichotomie entre ONG et mouvements sociaux et les conséquences de cette distinction sur leurs choix stratégiques. La Mission Kheti Virasat (MKV), qui travaille dans l’Etat du Pendjab dans le nord de l’Inde, constitute un cas d’étude pertinent pour explorer cette question. MKV est un de ces groupes de plus en plus nombreux qui, travaillant dans le domaine de l’agriculture durable, ont choisi d’adopter le mouvement social comme modèle d’organisation et de prendre leurs distances d’avec les ONG. Ce cas d’étude permet de mettre en lumière les raisons pour lesquelles les mouvements sociaux se distinguent des ONG et les défis qui résultent de ce choix.

Zusammenfassung

Nicht-staatliche Organisationen und soziale Bewegungen werden einander innerhalb der Bürgergesellschaft häufig als zwei unterschiedliche Handlungsmodi gegenübergestellt. Während man bei den nicht-staatliche Organisationen davon ausgeht, dass sie die Interessen der Spender vertreten und sich hauptsächlich aus berufstätigen Mitgliedern der Mittelschicht zusammensetzen, werden soziale Bewegungen dagegen vielmehr als ein authentischer Ausdruck der Perspektiven der Basisorganisationen präsentiert. Zwar findet man in der akademischen Literatur einen abstrakten Vergleich bzw. eine Gegenüberstellung dieser beiden Organisationen, doch wurden bislang nur relativ wenige Forschungen dahingehend unternommen, wie die Akteure der Bürgergesellschaft selbst die Dichotomie zwischen den nicht-staatlichen Organisationen und der sozialen Bewegung konzipieren und wie sich dies auf ihre strategischen Entscheidungen auswirkt. Die im nordindischen Staat Punjab tätige Kheti Virasat Mission (KVM) ist ein geeignetes Fallbeispiel zur Erforschung dieses Themas. Die KVM ist eine der vermehrt auftauchenden Gruppen im Bereich nachhaltiger Agrarwirtschaft, die für sich ein Organisationsmodell der sozialen Bewegung gewählt hat und sich selbst von den nicht-staatlichen Organisationen distanziert. Das Fallbeispiel trägt zum Verständnis bei, wie und warum sich soziale Bewegungen von nicht-staatlichen Organisationen differenzieren, und zeigt zudem die Probleme, die ihnen dabei begegnen.

Resumen

Las Organizaciones No Gubernamentales (ONG) y los movimientos sociales se yuxtaponen a menudo como dos modos diferentes de acción dentro de la sociedad civil. Mientras que las ONG son vistas como entes vinculados a los intereses de los donantes y compuestas fundamentalmente de profesionales de clase media, los movimientos sociales son presentados como una expresión más auténtica de las perspectivas de las bases. Aunque el material académico publicado compara y contrasta estas dos formas de organización a nivel abstracto, ha habido comparativamente poca investigación que explore cómo los actores de la sociedad civil conceptualizan la dicotomía ONG/movimiento social y cómo esto influye en su toma de decisiones estratégicas. La Kheti Virasat Mission (KVM), que trabaja en el estado de Punjab, en el norte de la India, es un caso útil para explorar esta cuestión. KVM es uno de un creciente número de grupos que trabajan en el campo de la agricultura sostenible que ha escogido adoptar un modelo de movimiento social de organización y distanciarse de las ONG. El caso ayuda a elucidar cómo y por qué los movimientos sociales se diferencian de las ONG y los retos a los que se enfrentan al hacerlo.

摘要

非政府组织(NGOs)和社会运动通常是文明社会并存的两种特殊的运动模式。非政府组织主要由中产阶级专业人士组成,其与捐赠者的利益相关,但社会运动代表着社会基层的更真实表示。尽管学术文献摘要部分对这两种组织形式进行了对比,但关于探讨文明社会自身如何将非政府组织/社会运动分歧概念化以及如何影响他们的战略决策的研究相对较少。北印度旁遮普邦的贺提夫兰圣机构是研究该项主题的实用例子。贺提夫兰圣机构从事可持续发展的农业,成员与日俱增,其选择采用组织社会运动模式,与非政府组织保持距离。该实例阐明了社会组织如何和为何要与非政府组织保持差异性,以及他们所面对的挑战。

ملخص

غالبا˝يتم إعتبار المنظمات الغير حكومية(NGOs) والحركات الاجتماعية كإثنين من وسائط مختلفة متجاورة للعمل داخل المجتمع المدني. في حين تعتبر المنظمات الغير حكومية (NGOs) مرتبطة بمصالح الجهات المانحة والتي تتألف أساسا˝ من المهنيين من الطبقة المتوسطة، يتم تقديم الحركات الاجتماعية على أنها تعبير أكثر واقعية عن وجهات النظر على مستوى القاعدة. في حين تقارن الكتابات الأكاديمية و تناقض هذين الشكلين من أشكال التنظيم بصورة مجردة، هناك بحوث قليلة نسبيا˝لإستكشاف كيفية الجهات الفاعلة في المجتمع المدني أنفسهم لديها فكرة عن للمنظمات الغير حكومية (NGOs)/إنقسام الحركة الإجتماعية وكيف أن هذا يؤثر على أخذ قرارهم الاستراتيجي. بعثة (KVM)، العاملة في الولاية الهندية الشمالية من ولاية البنجاب، هي حالة مفيدة لاستكشاف هذه المسألة. بعثة (KVM) هي واحدة من عدد متزايد من الجماعات العاملة في مجال الزراعة المستدامة التي اختارت اعتماد نموذج الحركة الاجتماعية من تنظيم وتنأى بنفسها عن المنظمات الغير حكومية(NGOs). الحالة تساعد على إلقاء الضوء على لماذا وكيف أن الحركات الإجتماعية تميز نفسها عن المنظمات الغير حكومية (NGOs) والتحديات التي يواجهونها للقيام بذلك.

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Notes

  1. A distinction is often made by advocates between ‘natural’ and ‘organic’ farming. Where natural farming uses only inputs available at the farm or village level, organic farming may entail the application of organic inputs purchased on the market (for example, silt from riverbeds). This is how these two terms are used in this paper. Sustainable agriculture may be seen as a broader term, referring to any form of agriculture posed as a solution to issues of sustainability within the currently dominant agricultural paradigm.

  2. Based on the region of Vidarbha in Maharashtra, Subhash Palekar has become an influential thinker on natural farming in India. He has attempted to develop a philosophy of farming, which he occasionally terms ‘spiritual farming’, based on Vedic principles. At a more practical level, he advocates systems of mixed cropping involving no external inputs, which he has developed and verified through ongoing research. He produces material in a number of Indian languages and in English. Details can be found at his website, http://palekarzerobudgetnaturalfarming.com/

  3. Although not directly relevant to the discussion in this article, Dutt’s involvement in the Sangh Parivar is controversial and requires some explanation. Currently, Dutt renounces his former connections to the Sangh Parivar, but it is clear that its ideology still influences his personal views: he is a passionate nationalist and speaks nostalgically regarding the glory of India’s pre-British, pre-Mughal, Hindu past. Undoubtedly, this influences his work with KVM to some extent. Indeed, the very notion of ‘kheti virasat’ (‘agricultural heritage’) has resonance with the Sangh Parivar’s mobilisational strategy of appealing to simplistic, essentialist notions of Indian tradition, which have been blocked by aggressive foreign and ‘non-Hindu’ forces (see McGuire and Reeves 2003). It is also true that some of the leading figures of KVM describe it as a ‘nationalist organisation’, in that it encourages people to take pride in their country by protecting its natural and agricultural heritage. However, on the whole, Dutt clearly argues that the issues of ecology transcend the narrow politics of left and right, and should be made relevant to people of all political perspectives. Furthermore, while Dutt does draw on his contacts in the Sangh Parivar to mobilise support and donations, he is also quite well connected with people from the left of politics, including members of the Communist Party of India, and people without particular political alignments. There are many people from the left in Punjab who are supportive of KVM and the issues that it stands for, and the perception of interviewees was that Dutt’s Hindu nationalism is a separate issue to his ecological politics.

  4. Some social movement scholars suggest that as movements develop, it becomes necessary for them to consolidate their resources and develop more formal organisational structures, becoming ‘social movement organisations’ (Zald and Ash 1966). KVM has certainly followed this trajectory. However, the phrase ‘social movement organisation’ did not appear in the vocabulary of any of the participants in this study. As this article has aimed to explain the ways in which activists themselves negotiate issues of organisational identity, it was not deemed appropriate to introduce a debate over a term which has no meaning for the participants.

  5. I am here indebted to Tanya Jakimow, who identified this connection.

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Acknowledgments

The research presented in this paper was funded by the Centre for Asia Pacific Social Transformation Studies (CAPSTRANS) and the Faculty of Arts at the University of Wollongong. I would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their useful and challenging comments on a previous version of this article. I would also like to express my thanks to Tanya Jackimow and Ruchira Ganguly-Scrase, as well as to my supervisors Richard Howson, Susan Engel and Tim Scrase, for their insightful comments on previous drafts.

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Brown, T. Negotiating the NGO/Social Movement Dichotomy: Evidence from Punjab, India. Voluntas 25, 46–66 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-012-9324-7

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