Abstract
Purpose
A high prevalence of depressive symptomatology has been reported amongst sufferers of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), but it remains unclear as to whether this is due to their OSA or other factors associated with the disorder. The current study aimed to assess the incidence and aetiology of depression in a community sample of individuals presenting to the sleep laboratory for diagnostic assessment of OSA.
Methods
Forty-five consecutive individuals who presented to the sleep laboratory were recruited; of those, 34 were diagnosed with OSA, and 11 were primary snorers with no clinical or laboratory features of OSA. Nineteen control subjects were also recruited. Patients and controls completed the Beck Depression Inventory, the Profile of Mood States (POMS), and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale to assess their mood and sleepiness, prior to their polysomnography.
Results
All patients reported significantly more depressive symptoms compared with healthy controls, regardless of their degree of OSA. There were no significant differences between OSA patients and primary snorers on any of the mood and self-rated sleepiness measures. Depression scores were not significantly associated with any of the nocturnal variables. Regression analysis revealed that the POMS fatigue subscale explained the majority of the variance in subjects' depression scores.
Conclusions
Fatigue was the primary predictor of the level of depressive symptoms in patients who attended the sleep laboratory, regardless of the level of severity of sleep-disordered breathing. When considering treatment options, practitioners should be aware of the concomitant occurrence of depressive symptoms and fatigue in patients presenting with sleep complaints, which may not be due to a sleep disorder.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ohayon MM (2007) Epidemiology of depression and its treatment in the general population. J Psychiatric Res 41:207
Kales A, Caldwell AB, Cadieux RJ, Vela-Bueno A, Ruch LG, Mayes SD (1985) Severe obstructive sleep apnea–II: associated psychopathology and psychosocial consequences. J Chron Dis 38:427–434
Aloia MS, Arnedt JT, Smith L, Skrekas J, Stanchina M, Millman RP (2005) Examining the construct of depression in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep Med 6:115–121
Schwartz D, Kohler W, Karatinos G (2005) Symptoms of depression in individuals with obstructive sleep apnea may be amendable to treatment with continuous positive airway pressure. Chest 128:1304–1309
Harris M, Glozier N, Ratnavadivel R, Grunstein RR (2009) Obstructive sleep apnea and depression. Sleep Med Rev 13:437–444
Reynolds C, Kupfer D, McEachran A, Taska L, Sewitch D, Coble P (1989) Depressive psychopathology in male sleep apneics. J Clin Psychiatry 45:287–290
Mendelson W (1992) Depression in obstructive sleep apnoea patients. Sleep Res 21:230
Schroder C, O'Hara R (2005) Depression and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Ann Gen Psychiatry 4:13
Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Koretz D et al (2003) The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). JAMA 289:3095–3105
Young T, Palta M, Dempsey J, Skatrud J, Weber S, Badr S (1993) The occurrence of sleep-disordered breathing among middle-aged adults. N Engl J Med 328:1230–1235
Kessler R, Zhao S, Blazer D, Swartz M (1997) Prevalence, correlates, and course of minor depression and major depression in the national comorbidity survey. J Affect Dis 45:19–30
Murry C, Lopez A (1996) Evidence-based health policy: lessons from the Global Burden of Disease Study. Science 274:740–743
Sforza E, de Saint HZ, Pelissolo A, Rochat T, Ibanez V (2002) Personality, anxiety and mood traits in patients with sleep-related breathing disorders: effect of reduced daytime alertness. Sleep Med 3:139–145
Aitkins J, Caruana-Montaldo B, Vanable P, Tadimeti L, Mendelson W (1999) MMPI correlates of sleep and respiratory disturbance in obstructive sleep apnoea. Sleep 22:362–369
Pillar G, Lavie P (1998) Psychiatric symptoms in sleep apnea syndrome: effects of genderand respiratory disturbance index. Chest 114:697–703
Bardwell W, Berry C, A-I S, Dimsdale J (1999) Psychological correlates of sleep apnea. J Psychosom Res 47:583–596
Bardwell WA, Moore P, Ancoli-Israel S, Dimsdale JE (2003) Fatigue in obstructive sleep apnea: driven by depressive symptoms instead of apnea severity? Am J Psychiatry 160:350–355
Mills P, Kim J-H, Bardwell W, Hong S, Dimsdale J (2008) Predictors of fatigue in obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Breath 12:397–399
Bedard MA, Montplaisir J, Richer F, Rouleau I, Malo J (1991) Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: pathogenesis of neuropsychological deficits. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 13:950–964
Beebe DW, Gozal D (2002) Obstructive sleep apnea and the prefrontal cortex: towards a comprehensive model linking nocturnal upper airway obstruction to daytime cognitive and behavioral deficits. J Sleep Res 11:1–16
Naismith S, Winter V, Gotsopoulos H, Hickie I, Cistulli P (2004) Neurobehavioral functioning in obstructive sleep apnea: differential effects of sleep quality, hypoxemia and subjective sleepiness. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 26:43–54
American Psychological Association (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC
Shen J, Barbera J, Shapiro CM (2006) Distinguishing sleepiness and fatigue: focus on definition and measurement. Sleep Med Rev 10:63–76
Johns MW (1993) Daytime sleepiness, snoring, and obstructive sleep apnea. The Epworth sleepiness scale. Chest 103:30–36
Bardwell WA, Ancoli-Israel S, Dimsdale JE (2007) Comparison of the effects of depressive symptoms and apnea severity on fatigue in patients with obstructive sleep apnea: a replication study. J Affective Dis 97:181–186
Aikens J, Mendelson W (1999) A matched comparison of MMPI responses in patients with primary snoring or obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep 22:355–359
The Report of an American Academy of Sleep Medicine Task Force (1999) Sleep-related breathing disorders in adults: recommendations for syndrome definition and measurement techniques in clinical research. Sleep 22:667–689
Johns MW (1991) A new method for measuring daytime sleepiness: the Epworth sleepiness scale. Sleep 14:540–545
Beck A, Steer R, Brown G (1996) Beck Depression Inventory-II Manual. The Psychological Society, San Antonio
Banks S, Barnes M, Tarquinio N, Pierce RJ, Lack LC, Doug McEvoy R (2004) Factors associated with maintenance of wakefulness test mean sleep latency in patients with mild to moderate obstructive sleep apnoea and normal subjects. J Sleep Res 13:71–78
Barnes M, McEvoy RD, Banks S, Tarquinio N, Murray CG et al (2004) Efficacy of positive airways pressure and oral appliance in mild to moderate obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 170:656–664
McNair D, Lorr M, Droppleman L (1992) EdITS Manual for the Profile of Mood States. EdITS, San Diago, CA
Rechtschaffen A, Kales A (1968) A manual of standardized terminolgy, techniques and scoring system for sleep stages in human subjects. The National Institutes of Health, Washington DC
Redline S, Kapur VK, Sanders MH, Quan SF, Gottlieb DJ et al (2000) Effects of varying approaches for identifying respiratory disturbances on sleep apnea assessment. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 161:369–374
Kales A, Caldwell A, Cadieux R, Vela-Bueno A, Ruch L, Mayes S (1985) Severe obstructive sleep apnea–II: associated psychopathology and psychosocial consequences. J Chronic Dis 38:427–434
Barnes M, Houston D, Worsnop CJ, Neill AM, Mykytyn IJ et al (2002) A randomized controlled trial of continuous positive airway pressure in mild obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165:773–780
Engleman HM, Martin SE, Deary IJ, Douglas NJ (1997) Effect of CPAP therapy on daytime function in patients with mild sleep apnoea/hypopnoea syndrome. Thorax 52:114–119
Haba-Rubio J, Staner L, Krieger J, Macher JP (2005) Periodic limb movements and sleepiness in obstructive sleep apnea patients. Sleep Med 6:225–229
Guilleminault C, Stoohs R, Clerk A, Cetel M, Maistors P (1993) Excessive daytime sleepiness: the upper airway resistance syndrome. Chest 104:781–787
Young T, Hutton R, Finn L, Badr S, Palta M (1996) The gender bias in sleep apnea diagnosis. Are women missed because they have different symptoms? Arch Intern Med 156:2445–2451
Weissman MM, Bland R, Joyce PR, Newman S, Wells JE, Wittchen H-U (1993) Sex differences in rates of depression: cross-national perspectives. J Affective Dis 29:77–84
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Dr. Maree Barnes for her assistance with data collection of the controls subjects and the staff at Mitcham Private Hospital sleep laboratory for their assistance with the sleep studies.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jackson, M.L., Stough, C., Howard, M.E. et al. The contribution of fatigue and sleepiness to depression in patients attending the sleep laboratory for evaluation of obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Breath 15, 439–445 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11325-010-0355-2
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11325-010-0355-2