Abstract
This study sought to investigate the level of knowledge of language constructs in a cohort of Australian teachers and to examine their self-rated ability and confidence in that knowledge. Seventy-eight teachers from schools across the Australian state of Victoria completed a questionnaire which included items from existing measures, as well as newly developed items. Consistent with a number of earlier Australian and international studies, teachers’ explicit and implicit knowledge of basic linguistic constructs was limited and highly variable. A statistically significant correlation was found between (1) total self-rated ability and (2) years since qualification and experience teaching the early years of primary school; however, no relationship was found between self-rated ability and overall performance on knowledge items. Self-rated ability to teach phonemic awareness and phonics had no relationship with demonstrated knowledge in these areas. Teachers were most likely to rate their ability to teach skills including spelling, phonics, comprehension or vocabulary as either moderate or very good. This was despite most respondents demonstrating limited knowledge and stating that they did not feel confident answering questions about their knowledge in these areas. The findings from this study confirm that in the field of language and literacy instruction, there is a gap between the knowledge that is theoretically requisite, and therefore expected, and the actual knowledge of many teachers. This finding challenges current pre-service teacher education and in-service professional learning.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The Victorian Government Department of Education and the Catholic Education Commission of Victoria are two of the three education sectors in the state of Victoria. In 2014, the distribution of enrolment for primary school age children in Victoria was as follows: 67 % in Victorian Government schools, 22.2 % in Catholic schools and 10.8 % in Independent schools.
References
Apel, K., Wilson-Fowler, E. B., & Masterson, J. J. (2014). Developing word-level literacy skills in children with and without typical communication skills. In S. Ellis & E. McCartney (Eds.), Applied linguistics and primary school teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Applegate, A. J., & Applegate, M. D. (2004). The Peter effect: Reading habits and attitudes of pre-service teachers. The Reading Teacher, 554–563.
Binks-Cantrell, E., Joshi, R. M., & Washburn, E. K. (2012). Validation of an instrument for assessing teacher knowledge of basic language constructs of literacy. Annals of Dyslexia, 62(3), 153–171.
Binks-Cantrell, E., Washburn, E. K., Joshi, R. M., & Hougen, M. (2012). Peter effect in the preparation of reading teachers. Scientific Studies of Reading, 16(6), 526–536.
Bos, C., Mather, N., Dickson, S., Podhajski, B., & Chard, D. (2001). Perceptions and knowledge of preservice and inservice educators about early reading instruction. Annals of Dyslexia, 51(1), 97–120.
Bos, C., Mather, N., Narr, R. F., & Babur, N. (1999). Interactive, collaborative professional development in early literacy instruction: Supporting the balancing act. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 14(4), 227–238.
Bowey, J. A. (2006). Need for systematic synthetic phonics teaching within the early reading curriculum. Australian Psychologist, 41(2), 79–84.
Brinkman, S. A., Gregory, T. A., Goldfeld, S., Lynch, J. W., & Hardy, M. (2014). Data resource profile: The Australian Early Development Index (AEDI). International Journal of Epidemiology, 43(4), 1089–1096.
Buckingham, J., Wheldall, K., & Beaman-Wheldall, R. (2013). Why Jaydon can’t read: The triumph of ideology over evidence in teaching reading. Policy: A Journal of Public Policy and Ideas, 29(3), 21.
Coltheart, M., & Prior, M. (2006). Learning to read in Australia. Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 11(4), 157–164.
Craven, G., Beswick, K., Fleming, J., Fletcher, T., Green, M., Jensen, B., Leinonen, E., & Rickards, F. (2014). Action now: Classroom ready teachers—Report of the Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group (TEMAG). Australian Government, Canberra: Department of Education and Training.
Cunningham, A. E., Perry, K. E., Stanovich, K. E., & Stanovich, P. J. (2004). Disciplinary knowledge of K-3 teachers and their knowledge calibration in the domain of early literacy. Annals of Dyslexia, 54(1), 139–167.
Department of Education (2015). Action now: Classroom ready teachers—Australian government response. Australian Government, Canberra: Department of Education and Training.
Donnelly, K., & Wiltshire, K. (2014). Review of the Australian curriculum final report. Australian Government, Canberra: Department of Education and Training.
Driver, M. K., Pullen, P. C., Kennedy, M. J., Williams, M. C., & Ely, E. (2014). Using instructional technology to improve preservice teachers’ knowledge of phonological awareness. Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children, 0888406414537902.
Fielding-Barnsley, R. (2010). Australian pre-service teachers’ knowledge of phonemic awareness and phonics in the process of learning to read. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 15(1), 99–110.
Fielding-Barnsley, R., & Purdie, N. (2005). Teachers’ attitude to and knowledge of metalinguistics in the process of learning to read. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 33(1), 65–76.
Goe, L. (2007). The link between teacher quality and student outcomes: A research synthesis. Washington DC: National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality.
Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10.
Harris, P. A., Taylor, R., Thielke, R., Payne, J., Gonzalez, N., & Conde, J. G. (2009). Research electronic data capture (REDCap)—A metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, 42(2), 377–381.
Hempenstall, K. (1997). The whole language-phonics controversy: An historical perspective. Educational Psychology, 17(4), 399–418.
Hutchinson, J., & Clegg, J. (2011). Education practitioner-led intervention to facilitate language learning in young children: An effectiveness study. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 27(2), 151–164.
Joshi, R. M., Binks, E., Hougen, M., Dahlgren, M. E., Ocker-Dean, E., & Smith, D. L. (2009). Why elementary teachers might be inadequately prepared to teach reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(5), 392–402.
Law, J., Rush, R., Schoon, I., & Parsons, S. (2009). Modeling developmental language difficulties from school entry into adulthood: Literacy, mental health, and employment outcomes. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 52(6), 1401–1416.
Louden, W., & Rohl, M. (2006). “Too many theories and not enough instruction”: Perceptions of preservice teacher preparation for literacy teaching in Australian schools. Literacy, 40(2), 66–78.
Mahar, N. E., & Richdale, A. L. (2008). Primary teachers’ linguistic knowledge and perceptions of early literacy instruction. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 13(1), 17–37.
Mather, N., Bos, C., & Babur, N. (2001). Perceptions and knowledge of preservice and inservice teachers about early literacy instruction. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34(5), 472–482.
McCutchen, D., Abbott, R. D., Green, L. B., Beretvas, S. N., Cox, S., Potter, N. S., et al. (2002). Beginning literacy: Links among teacher knowledge, teacher practice, and student learning. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(1), 69–86.
McCutchen, D., Harry, D. R., Cox, S., Sidman, S., Covill, A. E., & Cunningham, A. E. (2002). Reading teachers’ knowledge of children’s literature and English phonology. Annals of Dyslexia, 52(1), 205–228.
Moats, L. (1994). The missing foundation in teacher education: Knowledge of the structure of spoken and written language. Annals of Dyslexia, 44(1), 81–102.
Moats, L. (2000). Whole language lives on: The illusion of “balanced” reading instruction. Washington, DC: Thomas B. Fordham Foundation.
Moats, L. (2009). Still wanted: Teachers with knowledge of language. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(5), 387–391.
Moats, L., & Foorman, B. R. (2003). Measuring teachers’ content knowledge of language and reading. Annals of Dyslexia, 53(1), 23–45.
Moats, L., & Lyon, G. R. (1996). Wanted: Teachers with knowledge of language. Topics in Language Disorders, 16(2), 73–86.
Muter, V., Hulme, C., Snowling, M. J., & Stevenson, J. (2004). Phonemes, rimes, vocabulary, and grammatical skills as foundations of early reading development: Evidence from a longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 40(5), 665.
National Reading Panel (US), National Institute of Child Health, & Human Development (US). (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health.
Piasta, S. B., Connor, C. M., Fishman, B. J., & Morrison, F. J. (2009). Teachers’ knowledge of literacy concepts, classroom practices, and student reading growth. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(3), 224–248.
Podhajski, B., Mather, N., Nathan, J., & Sammons, J. (2009). Professional development in scientifically based reading instruction teacher knowledge and reading outcomes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(5), 403–417.
Reid Lyon, G., & Weiser, B. (2009). Teacher knowledge, instructional expertise, and the development of reading proficiency. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(5), 475–480.
Reilly, S., Wake, M., Ukoumunne, O. C., Bavin, E., Prior, M., Cini, E., et al. (2010). Predicting language outcomes at 4 years of age: Findings from early language in Victoria study. Pediatrics, 126(6), e1530–e1537.
Rose, J. (2006). Independent review of the teaching of early reading. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skill, UK Government.
Rowe, K. (2005). Teaching reading: Report and recommendations. Canberra: Australian Government, Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations.
Snow, P. (2014). Oral language competence and the transition to school: Socio-economic and behavioural factors that influence academic and social success. International Journal on School Disaffection, 11(1), 3–24.
Snow, C., Griffin, P., & Burns, M. S. (2005). Knowledge to support the teaching of reading: Preparing teachers for a changing world. San Francisco: Wiley.
Snow, P. C., & Powell, M. B. (2008). Oral language competence, social skills and high‐risk boys: What are juvenile offenders trying to tell us? Children & Society, 22(1), 16–28.
Snowling, M. (2005). Literacy outcomes for children with oral language impairments: Developmental interactions between language skills and learning to read. In H. Catts & A. Kamhi (Eds.), The connections between language and reading disabilities (pp. 55–75). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Snowling, M., & Hulme, C. (2012). Annual research review: The nature and classification of reading disorders—A commentary on proposals for DSM-5. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(5), 593–607.
Spear-Swerling, L., & Brucker, P. O. (2003). Teachers’ acquisition of knowledge about English word structure. Annals of Dyslexia, 53(1), 72–103.
Spear-Swerling, L., & Brucker, P. O. (2004). Preparing novice teachers to develop basic reading and spelling skills in children. Annals of Dyslexia, 54(2), 332–364.
Spencer, E. J., Schuele, C. M., Guillot, K. M., & Lee, M. W. (2008). Phonemic awareness skill of speech-language pathologists and other educators. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in SCHOOLs, 39(4), 512–520.
Tetley, D., & Jones, C. (2014). Pre-service teachers’ knowledge of language concepts: Relationships to field experiences. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 19(1), 17–32.
Thomson, S., Hillman, K., Wernert, N., Schmid, M., Buckley, S., & Munene, A. (2012). Highlights from TIMSS & PIRLS 2011 from Australia’s perspective. Melbourne: ACER. Retrieved from http://www.acer.edu.au/documents/TIMSS-PIRLS_Australian-Highlights.pdf.
Tomblin, B. (Ed.). (2005). Literacy as an outcome of language development and its impact on children’s psychosocial and emotional development. Montreal: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development.
Torgerson, C., Brooks, G., & Hall, J. (2006). A systematic review of the research literature on the use of phonics in the teaching of reading and spelling: DfES Publications.
Wadlington, E. M., & Wadlington, P. L. (2005). What educators really believe about dyslexia. Reading Improvement, 42(1), 16.
Washburn, E. K., Joshi, R. M., & Cantrell, E. B. (2011). Are preservice teachers prepared to teach struggling readers? Annals of Dyslexia, 61(1), 21–43.
Washburn, E. K., & Mulcahy, C. A. (2014). Expanding preservice teachers’ knowledge of the English language: Recommendations for teacher educators. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 30(4), 328–347.
Acknowledgments
The Classroom Promotion of Oral Language Project is funded by grants from the Australian Research Council Linkage Grant (LP13011308) and the Ian Potter Foundation. Sharon Goldfeld is supported by an Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Career Development Fellowship 1082922. We acknowledge and thank all of the teachers for their contributions to this study. We also acknowledge and thank Francesca Orsini from the Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics Unit, Murdoch Childrens Research Institue for her assistance with this project.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix: Questionnaire
Appendix: Questionnaire
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Stark, H.L., Snow, P.C., Eadie, P.A. et al. Language and reading instruction in early years’ classrooms: the knowledge and self-rated ability of Australian teachers. Ann. of Dyslexia 66, 28–54 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-015-0112-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-015-0112-0