Abstract
In Mediterranean Europe during the Pleistocene–Holocene, transition changes in the intensification of small prey exploitation by humans are detected. In the NE of the Iberian Peninsula, these changes are mainly evidenced by an increase in the number of rabbit remains, normally exceeding the 90% of the recovered animal specimens. The archaeological site of Balma del Gai (Moià, Barcelona) provides one of the most significant archaeological records of this kind. Through zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis, our work’s aims are: to elucidate the human activity on leporids (rabbits and hares) in comparison to other predators, to understand the different ways of handling and exploiting rabbit carcasses and to assess the importance of this small prey for the Epipalaeolithic hunter–gatherers. Results on anatomical representation, breakage and bone surface modifications show that rabbit remains recovered respond to an anthropogenic contribution. High proportions of thermo-altered bones, cut marks caused by lithic tools and teeth marks are observed. All parameters indicate intense exploitation of rabbit fur and meat. This study shows clear evidence of the importance of small prey for human subsistence during this period.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Andrews P (1990) Owls, caves and fossils. Natural History Museum Publication, London
Aura JE, Villaverde V, Pérez-Ripoll M, Martínez R, Calatayud PG (2002) Big game and small prey: paleolithic and epipaleolithic economy from Valencia (Spain). J Archaeol Method Theory 9:215–267
Aura JE, Jordá JF, Pérez M, Badal E, Morales JV, Avezuela B, Tiffagom M, Jardón, P (2010) Treinta años de investigación sobre el Paleolítixo superior de Andalucía: la Cueva de Nerja (Málaga, España). In: Mangado X (ed) El Paleolítico superior peninsular. Novedades del siglo XXI. Monografies del SERP 8. Universitat de Barcelona, 149–172
Bean LJ (1972) Mukat’s people. The Cahuilla Indians of southern California. University of California Press
Bergadà MM (1998) Estudio geoarqueológico de los asentamientos prehistóricos del Pleistoceno Superior y el Holoceno en Catalunya. British archaeological reports IS 742. Oxford
Bicho NF, Hockett B, Haws J, Belcher W (2000) Hunter-gatherers subsistence at the end of the Pleistocene: preliminary results from Picareiro Cave, Central Portugal. Antiquity 74:500–506
Bicho NF, Haws J, Hockett B (2006) Two sides of the same coin-rocks, bones and site function of Picareiro Cave, Central Portugal. J Anthropol Archaeol 25(4):485–499
Binford LR (1981) Bones: ancient men and modern myths. Academic Press, New York
Blasco R, Fernández Peris J (2012) A uniquely broad spectrum diet during the Middle Pleistocene at Bolomor Cave. Quat Int 252:1677–1684
Brugal JP (2006) Petit gibier et fonction de sites au Paléolithique supérieur. Les ensembles fauniques de la grotte d’Anecrial (Porto de Mos, Estremadure, Portugal). Paleo 18:45–68
Cacho C, Fumanal MP, López P, Pérez Ripoll M, Martínez Valle R, Uzquiano P, Arnanz A, Sánchez Marco A, Sevilla P, Morales A, Roselló E, Garralda MD, García Carrillo M (1995) El Tossal de la Roca (Vall d’Alcalà, Alicante). Reconstrucción paleoambiental y cultural de la transición del Tardiglaciar al Holoceno inicial. Recerques del Museu d’Alcoi 4:11–102
Coard R (2007) Ascertaining an agent: using tooth pit data to determine the carnivore/s responsible for predation in cases of suspected big cat kills in an upland area of Britain. J Archaeol Sci 34:1677–1684
Cochard D (2004a) Les léporides dans la subsistance Paléolithique de sud a la France. Doctoral thesis. Université Bordeaux I
Cochard D (2004b) Etude taphonomique des léporidés d’une tanière de renard actuelle: apport d’un référencie à la reconnaissance des accumulations anthropiques. Rev Paléobiol 23(2):659–673
Cochard D, Brugal JP (2004) Importance des fonctions de sites dans les accumulations paléolithiques de léporidés. In: Brugal JP, Desse J (eds) Petits animaux et sociétés humaines. Du complément alimentaire aux ressources utilitaires, XXIV Actes des XXIV. Rencontres Internationales d’Archéologie et d’Histoire d’Antibes. Editions APDCA, Sophia Antipolis, pp 283–296
de Juana S, Galán AB, Domínguez-Rodrigo M (2010) Taphonomic identification of cut marks made with lithic handaxes: an experimental study. J Archaeol Sci 37(8):1841–1850
Delibes M, Hiraldo F (1981) The rabbit as prey in the Iberian Mediterranean ecosystem. In: Myers K, CD MI (eds) Proceedings of the world lagomorph conference. University of Guelph, Guelph, pp 614–622
Dodson P, Wexlar D (1979) Taphonomic investigations of owl pellets. Paleobiology 5:275–284
Dominguez-Rodrigo M, de Juana S, Galán AB, Rodríguez M (2009) A new protocol to differentiate trampling marks from butchery cut marks. J Archaeol Sci 36:2643–2654
Estrada A, Nadal J, Lloveras LL, Valenzuela S, García-Argüelles P (2009) Acumulaciones de gasterópodos terrestres en yacimientos epipaleolíticos. Aproximación tafonómica del registro fósil en la Balma del Gai (Moià, Barcelona). Monografies del SERP 7:83–91
Fa JE, Stewart JR, Lloveras L, Vargas JM (2013) Rabbits and hominin survival in Iberia. J Hum Evol 64(4):233–241
Fernández-Jalvo Y, Andrews P (1992) Small mammal taphonomy of Gran Dolina, Atapuerca (Burgos), Spain. J Archaeol Sci 19:407–428
Fernández-Jalvo Y, Andrews P (2011) When humans chew bones. J Hum Evol 60(1):117–123
Fernández-Jalvo Y, Cáceres I (2010) Tafonomía e Industrial Lítica: marcas de corte y materias primas. Cuaternario y Arqueología: Homenaje a Francisco Giles Pacheco. Diputación provincial de Cádiz, 169–177
Fernández-Jalvo Y, Andrews P, Denys C (1999) Cut marks on small mammals at Olduvai Gorge Bed I. J Hum Evol 60:587–589
Fullola JM, García-Argüelles P (2006) La cueva del Parco (Alòs de Balaguer, Lleida) y el Abrigo del Filador (Margalef de Montsant, Tarragona): dos secuencias clave para el conocimiento del epipaleolítico en el nordeste peninsular. In: Alday Ruiz A (ed) El Mesolítico de muescas y denticulados en la Cuenca del Ebro y el Litoral Mediterráneo Peninsular. Diputación Foral de Álava, Álava, pp 121–133
García M, Rosell J, Vallverdú J, Vèrges JM (1996) L’Abric de Picamoixons I les estratègies dels darrers caçadors-recol⋅lectors Epipaleolítics. Quaderns de Vilaniu 29: 91–100
García-Argüelles P, Nadal J, Fullola JM (2005) El Abrigo del Filador (Margalef de Montsant, Tarragona) y su contextualización cultural y cronológica en el nordeste peninsular. Trab Prehist 62(1):65–83
García-Argüelles P, Estrada A, Nadal J, Fullola JM, Mangado J (2009) Les niveaux épipaléolithiques de la Balma de Gai (Moià, Barcelone, Catalogne). In: De Méditerranée et d’ailleurs Mélanges offerts à Jean Guilaine. Archives d’Ecologie Préhistorique, Toulouse, 299–310
Gaudzinski-Windheuser S, Kindler L, Rabinovich R, Goren-Inbar N (2010) Testing heterogeneity in faunal assemblages from archaeological sites: tumbling and trampling experiments at the early Middle Pleistocene site of Gesher Benot Ya’ aqov (Israel). J Archaeol Sci 37:3170–3190
Grayson DK (1984) Quantitative zooarchaeology. Academic Press, New York
Guennouni KE (2001) Les lapins du Pléistocène moyen et supérieur de quelques sites préhistoriques de l’Europe méditerranéenne: Terra-Amata, Orgnac 3, Baume Bonne, Grotte du Lazaret, Grotte du Boquete de Zafarraya, Arma delle Manie. Étude paléontologique, taphonomique et archéozoologique. Doctoral thesis. Muséum National d’Histoire Naturel, Paris
Haynes G (1980) Evidence of carnivore gnawing on Pleistocene and recent mammalian bones. Paleobiology 6:341–351
Haynes G (1983) A guide for differentiating mammalian carnivore taxa responsible for gnaw damage to herbivore limb bones. Paleobiology 9:164–172
Hockett BS (1991) Toward distinguishing human and raptor patterning on leporid bones. Am Antiq 56:667–679
Hockett BS, Bicho N (2000) The rabbit of Picareiro Cave: small mammal hunting during the Later Upper Paleolithic in the Portuguese Estremadura. J Archaeol Sci 27:715–723
Hockett BS, Haws JA (2002) Taphonomic and methodological perspectives of leporid hunting during the Upper Paleolithic of the Western Mediterranean Basin. J Archaeol Method Theory 9(3):269–302
Huget R (2007) Primeras ocupaciones humanas en la Península Ibérica: paleoeconomía en la sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos) y en la Cuenca de Guadix-Baza (Granada) durante el Pleistoceno inferior. Doctoral thesis. Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona
Ibáñez N, Saladié P (2004) Acquisition anthropique d’ Oryctolagus cuniculus dans le site du Molí del Salt (Catalogne, Espagne). In: Brugal JP, Desse J (eds) Petits animaux et sociétés humaines. XXIV Rencontres Internationales d’Archéologie et d’Histoire d’Antibes. Éditions APDCA, 255–259
Johnson E (1985) Current developments in bone technology. In: Schiffer M (ed) Advances in archaeological method and theory. Academic Press, Orlando, pp 157–235
Jolliffe IT (2002) Principal component analysis, 2nd edn. Springer-Verlag, New York
Jones EL (2006) Prey choice, mass collecting, and the wild European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). J Anthropol Archaeol 25:275–289
Landt M (2007) Tooth marks and human consumption: ethnoarchaeological mastication research among foragers of the Central African Republic. J Archaeol Sci 34:1629–1640
Llorente L (2015) Cova Fosca (Ares del Maestrat, Castellón): Zooarchaeology of the Neolithic Revolution in the Iberian Levant. Doctoral thesis. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid
Lloveras LL, Moreno-García M, Nadal J (2008a) Taphonomic analysis of leporid remains obtained from modern Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus) scats. J Archaeol Sci 35:1–13
Lloveras LL, Moreno-García M, Nadal J (2008b) Taphonomic study of leporid remains accumulated by Spanish Imperial Eagle (Aquila adalberti). Geobios 41:91–100
Lloveras LL, Moreno-García M, Nadal J (2009a) The eagle owl (Bubo bubo) as a leporid remains accumulator. Taphonomic analysis of modern rabbit remains recovered from nest of this predators. Int J Osteoarchaeol 19:573–592
Lloveras LL, Moreno-García M, Nadal J (2009b) Butchery, cooking and human consumption marks on rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) bones: an experimental study. Journal of Taphonomy 7(2–3):179–201
Lloveras L, Moreno-García M, Nadal J, Maroto J, Soler J, Soler N (2010) The application of actualistic studies to assess the taphonomic origin of Musterian rabbit accumulations from Arbreda Cave (north-East Iberia). Archaeofauna 19:99–119
Lloveras L, Moreno-García M, Nadal J, Zilhão J (2011) Who brought in the rabbits? Taphonomical analysis of Musterian and Solutrean leporid accumulations from Gruta do Caldeirão (Tomar, Portugal). J Archaeol Sci 38:2434–2449
Lloveras LL, Moreno-García M, Nadal J (2012a) Feeding the foxes: an experimental study to assess their taphonomic signature on leporid remains. Int J Osteoarchaeol 22(5):577–590
Lloveras LL, Moreno-García M, Nadal J (2012b) Assessing the variability in taphonomic studies of modern leporid remains from eagle owl (Bubo bubo) nest assemblages: the importance of age of prey. J Archaeol Sci 39:3754–3764
Lloveras LL, Nadal J, Moreno-García M, Thomas R, Anglada J, Baucells J, Martorell C, Vilasís D (2014a) The role of the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) as a bone accumulator in cliff rock shelters: an analysis of modern bone nest assemblages from north-eastern Iberia. J Archaeol Sci 44:76–90
Lloveras LL, Thomas R, Lourenço R, Caro J, Dias A (2014b) Understanding the taphonomic signature of Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata). J Archaeol Sci 49:455–471
Lloveras LL, Maroto J, Soler J, Thomas R, Moreno-García M, Nadal J (2016a) The role of small prey in human subsistence strategies from early Upper Palaeolithic sites in Iberia: the rabbits from the evolved Aurignacian level of Arbreda Cave. J Quat Sci 31:458–471. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.2869
Lloveras LL, Rissech C, Rosado-Méndez N (2016b) Tafonomía Forense. In: Sanabria-Medina C (ed) Patología y antropología forense de la muerte: la investigación científico-judicial de la muerte y la tortura, desde las fosas clandestinas, hasta la audiencia pública. Forensic Publisher, Bogotá, pp 453–523
Lupo KD (2007) Evolutionary foraging models in zooarchaeology analysis: recent applications and future challenges. J Archaeol Res 15:143–189
Lyman RL (1984) Bone density and differential survivorship of fossil classes. J Anthropol Archaeol 3:259–299
Manne T, Bicho NF (2009) Vale Boi: rendering new understanding of resources intensification and diversification in southwestern Iberia. Before Farming 2009/2(1):1–21
Martínez Valle R (1996) Fauna del Pleistoceno superior en el País Valenciano: aspectos económicos, huella de manipulación y valoración paleoambiental. Doctorate thesis. Universitat de València, València
Martínez-Polanco MF, Blasco R, Rosell J, Ibáñez N, Vaquero M (2016) Rabbits as food at the end of the Upper Paleolithic at Molí del Salt (Catalonia, Spain). Int J Osteoarchaeol 27:342–355. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.2541
Morales Pérez JV (2015) Explotació dels mamífers i economia de les darreres comunitats caçadores - recol·lectores del vessant mediterrani ibèric durant la transició Tardiglacial – Holocé. Doctoral Thesis. Universitat de València, València
Nadal J (1998) Les faunes del Plistocé final – Holocé a la Catalunya Meridional i de Ponent. Interpretacions tafonòmiques i paleoculturals. Doctorate thesis. Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona
Nadal J, Estrada A (2007) Les estratègies de caça durant el Epipaleolític a l’alt Penedès. Del Penedès, Primavera 2007:35–41
Pavao B, Stahl PW (1999) Structural density assays on Leporid skeletal elements with implications for taphonomic, actualistic and archaeological research. J Archaeol Sci 26:53–66
Pelletier M, Brugal JP, Cochard D, Lenoble A, Mallye JB, Royer A (2016) Identifying fossil rabbit warrens: insights from a taphonomical analysis of a modern warren. J Archaeol Sci Rep 10:331–344
Pérez Ripoll M (1992) Marcas de carnicería, fracturas intencionadas y mordeduras de carnívoros en huesos prehistóricos del Mediterráneo español. Instituto Juan Gil Albert. Diputación de Alicante, Alicante
Pérez Ripoll M (1993) Las marcas tafonómicas en huesos de lagomorfos. In: Hábitat humano, Fumanal MP, Bernabeu J (eds) Estudios sobre el Cuaternario. Medios sedimentarios. Cambios ambientales. Universitat de València, València, pp 227–231
Pérez Ripoll M (2004) La consommation humaine des lapins pendant le Paléolithique dans la région de Valencia (Espagne) et l’étude des niveaux gravétiens de la Cova de les Cendres (Alicante). In: Brugal JP, Desse J (eds) Actes des XXIV Rencontres Internationales d’Archéologie et d’Histoire d’Antibes. Editions APDCA, Sophia Antipolis, pp 191–206
Pérez Ripoll M, Villaverde V (2015) Papel de los lepóridos en el paleolítico de la región central mediterránea ibérica: valoración de los datos disponibles y de los modelos interpretativos. In: Sanchis A, Pascual JL (eds) Preses petites i grups humans en el passat. II Jornades d’Arqueozoologia. Museu de Prehistòria de València, 75–96
Rillardon M, Brugal J (2014) What about the broad Spectrum revolution? Subsistence strategy of hunter-gatherers in Southeast France between 20 and 8 ka BP. Quat Int 337:129–153
Rodríguez-Hidalgo AJ, Lloveras LL, Moreno-García M, Nadal J (2013) Feeding behaviour and taphonomiccharacterizationof non-ingested rabbit remains produced by the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). J Archaeol Sci 40:3031–3045
Rogers P (1982) Reliability of epiphyseal fusion as an indicator of age in rabbits. Mammalia 46(2):267–269
Román D (2012) Nouveautés sur la sequence du Pléistocène final et l’Holocène initial dans le versant méditerranéen de la péninsule Ibérique à travers l’industrie lithique. L’Anthropologie 116:665–679
Rosado-Méndez NY, Lloveras LL, Nadal J (2016) Toward the characterization of different butchery activities on the leporid carcasses through experimental studies. In: Lloveras LL, Rissech C, Nadal J, Fullola JM (eds) What bones tell us/ El que ens expliquen els ossos. Monografies 12, SERP
Rufà A, Blasco R, Rosell J, Vaquero M (2017) What is going on at the Molí del salt site? A zooarchaeological approach to the last hunter-gatherers from South Catalonia. Hist Biol 30:786–806. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2017.1315685
Saladié P, Rodríguez-Hidalgo A, Díez JC, Martín-Rodríguez P, Carbonell E (2013) Range of modifications by human chewing. J Archaeol Sci 40(1):380–397
Sanchis Serra A, Fernández Peris J (2008) Procesado y consumo antrópico de conejo en la Cova del Bolomor (Tavernes de la Valldigna, Valencia). El nivel XVIIc (ca 350 ka.). Complutum 19(1):25–46
Sanchis Serra A, Morales Pérez LV, Pérez Ripoll M (2011) Creación de un referente experimental para el estudio de las alteraciones causadas por dientes humanos sobre huesos de conejo. In: Morgado A, Baena J, García D (eds) La investigación experimental aplicada a la arqueología. Universidad de Granada y Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 343–349
Sanchis Serra A, Real Margalef C, Morales Pérez JV, Pérez Ripoll M, Tormo Cuñat C, Carrión Marco Y, Pérez Jordá G, Ribera Gómez A, Bolufer Marqués J, Villaverde Bonilla V (2013) Towards the identification of a new taphonomic agent: an analysis of bone accumulations obtained from modern Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) nest. Quat Int 330:136–149
Sanchis A, Real C, Pérez M, Villaverde V (2016) El conejo en la subsistencia humana del Paleolítico superior inicial en la zona central del Mediterráneo ibérico. In: Lloveras L, Rissech C, Nadal J, Fullola JM (eds) What bones tell us. Monografies del SERP 12. Universitat de Barcelona, 145–156
Shipman P, Foster GF, Schoeninger M (1984) Burnt bones and teeth: an experimental study of colour, morphology, crystal structure and shrinkage. J Archaeol Sci 11:307–325
Spier L (1978) Yuman tribes of the Gila River. New York
Starkovich BM (2012) Intensification of small game resources at Kissoura Cave 1 (Peloponnese, Greece) from the Middle Paleolithic to Mesolithic. Quat Int 264:17–31
Stiner MC, Munro NR (2002) Approaches to prehistoric diet breadth, demography and prey ranking systems in time and space. J Archaeol Method Theory 9:181–214
Stiner MC, Kuhn SL, Weiner S, Bar-Yosef O (1995) Differential burning, recrystallization and fragmentation of archaeological bone. J Archaeol Sci 22:223–237
Stiner MC, Munro ND, Surovell TA (2000) The tortoise and the hare. Small game use, the broad-spectrum revolution and the Paleolithic demography. Curr Anthropol 41:39–73
Taylor RH (1959) Age determination in wild rabbits. Nature 184:1158–1159
Vaquero M (ed) (2004) Els darrers caçadors recol∙lectors de la Conca de Barberà: el jaciment del Molí del Salt (Vimbodí). Excavacions 1993–2003, Museu Arxiu de Montblanc i Comarca: Montblanc, 326
Villa P, Mahieu E (1991) Breakage patterns of human long bones. J Hum Evol 21:27–48
Acknowledgments
Financial support from research projects HAR2017-86509 and SGR2017-00011 are gratefully acknowledged. Our thanks to the anonymous reviewers, whose critical comments helped us to improve our paper.
Funding
Lluís Lloveras was funded by a postdoctoral grant (BP-B00140-2014) from the Departament d’Universitats, Recerca I Societat de la Informació de la Generalitat de Catalunya and the COFUND programme (Marie Curie Actions).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Electronic supplementary material
Table S1
List of cut marked bones, location of the marks on each bone, number of cuts, orientation and intensity, recorded in rabbit remains recovered from the Balma del Gai site. (XLSX 15 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rosado-Méndez, N.Y., Lloveras, L., García-Argüelles, P. et al. The role of small prey in hunter–gatherer subsistence strategies from the Late Pleistocene–Early Holocene transition site in NE Iberia: the leporid accumulation from the Epipalaeolithic level of Balma del Gai site. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 11, 2507–2525 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-018-0695-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-018-0695-6