Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Ultra-processed Food Intake and Obesity: What Really Matters for Health—Processing or Nutrient Content?

  • The Obesity Epidemic: Causes and Consequences (A Cameron and K Backholer, Section Editors)
  • Published:
Current Obesity Reports Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose of Review

The aim of this narrative review was to summarize and critique recent evidence evaluating the association between ultra-processed food intake and obesity.

Recent Findings

Four of five studies found that higher purchases or consumption of ultra-processed food was associated with overweight/obesity. Additional studies reported relationships between ultra-processed food intake and higher fasting glucose, metabolic syndrome, increases in total and LDL cholesterol, and risk of hypertension. It remains unclear whether associations can be attributed to processing itself or the nutrient content of ultra-processed foods. Only three of nine studies used a prospective design, and the potential for residual confounding was high.

Summary

Recent research provides fairly consistent support for the association of ultra-processed food intake with obesity and related cardiometabolic outcomes. There is a clear need for further studies, particularly those using longitudinal designs and with sufficient control for confounding, to potentially confirm these findings in different populations and to determine whether ultra-processed food consumption is associated with obesity independent of nutrient content.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

BMI:

Body mass index

FFQ:

Food frequency questionnaire

HDL:

High-density lipoprotein

LDL:

Low-density lipoprotein

SSB:

Sugar-sweetened beverage

References

Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance

  1. Tapsell LC, Neale EP, Satija A, Hu FB. Foods, nutrients, and dietary patterns: interconnections and implications for dietary guidelines. Adv Nutr. 2016;7(3):445–54. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.115.011718.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Monteiro CA. Nutrition and health. The issue is not food, nor nutrients, so much as processing. Public Health Nutr. 2009;12(5):729–31. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980009005291.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. •• Moubarac JC, Parra DC, Cannon G, Monteiro C. Food classification systems based on food processing: significance and implications for policies and actions—a systematic literature review and assessment. Curr Obes Rep. 2014;3:256–72. This paper was the first systematic review to evaluate existing classification systems that categorize products by degree of food processing. Of the five identified systems, the NOVA food processing classification was rated highest in quality based on criteria for being a specific, coherent, clear, comprehensive, and workable system.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. • Monteiro CA, Cannon G, Moubarac JC, Levy RB, Louzada ML, Jaime PC. The UN Decade of Nutrition, the NOVA food classification and the trouble with ultra-processing. Public Health Nutr. 2017:1–13. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017000234. This commentary outlines the NOVA food processing classification and summarizes the use of NOVA in numerous studies to describe ultra-processed food consumption, examine the associations of ultra-processed foods with dietary quality and diet-related health outcomes, and inform dietary guidelines.

  5. Pan American Health Organization of the World Health Organization. Ultra-processed food and drink products in Latin America: trends, impact on obesity, policy implications. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization of the WHO; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Swinburn BA, Sacks G, Hall KD, McPherson K, Finegood DT, Moodie ML, et al. The global obesity pandemic: shaped by global drivers and local environments. Lancet. 2011;378(9793):804–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60813-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Zobel EH, Hansen TW, Rossing P, von Scholten BJ. Global changes in food supply and the obesity epidemic. Curr Obes Rep. 2016;5(4):449–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-016-0233-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Floros JD, Newsome R, Fisher W, Barbosa-Cánovas GV, Chen H, Dunne CP, et al. Feeding the world today and tomorrow: the importance of food science and technology. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2010;9(5):572–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Slimani N, Deharveng G, Southgate DA, Biessy C, Chajes V, van Bakel MM, et al. Contribution of highly industrially processed foods to the nutrient intakes and patterns of middle-aged populations in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2009;63(Suppl 4):S206–25. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2009.82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Wahlqvist ML. Food structure is critical for optimal health. Food Funct. 2016;7(3):1245–50. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5fo01285f.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. van Boekel M, Fogliano V, Pellegrini N, Stanton C, Scholz G, Lalljie S, et al. A review on the beneficial aspects of food processing. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2010;54(9):1215–47. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.200900608.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. FAO. Guidelines on the collection of information on food processing through food consumption surveys. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  13. • Monteiro CA, Cannon G, Moubarac JC, Martins AP, Martins CA, Garzillo J, et al. Dietary guidelines to nourish humanity and the planet in the twenty-first century. A blueprint from Brazil. Public Health Nutr. 2015;18(13):2311–22. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980015002165. This paper discusses the development and aims of the Brazilian dietary guidelines released in 2014, which include recommendations to make minimally processed foods the basis of diet and to avoid consumption of ultra-processed foods. This is the first peer-reviewed paper by Monteiro and colleagues to describe the current NOVA classification for food processing.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Monteiro CA, Levy RB, Claro RM, Castro IR, Cannon G. A new classification of foods based on the extent and purpose of their processing. Cad Saude Publica. 2010;26(11):2039–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Moubarac JC, Claro RM, Baraldi LG, Levy RB, Martins AP, Cannon G, et al. International differences in cost and consumption of ready-to-consume food and drink products: United Kingdom and Brazil, 2008-2009. Glob Public Health. 2013;8(7):845–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2013.796401.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Crovetto MM, Uauy R, Martins AP, Moubarac JC, Monteiro C. Household availability of ready-to-consume food and drink products in Chile: impact on nutritional quality of the diet. Rev Med Chil. 2014;142(7):850–8. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0034-98872014000700005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Monteiro CA, Levy RB, Claro RM, de Castro IR, Cannon G. Increasing consumption of ultra-processed foods and likely impact on human health: evidence from Brazil. Public Health Nutr. 2011;14(1):5–13. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980010003241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Moubarac JC, Martins AP, Claro RM, Levy RB, Cannon G, Monteiro CA. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and likely impact on human health. Evidence from Canada. Public Health Nutr. 2012:1–9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980012005009.

  19. Martinez Steele E, Baraldi LG, Louzada ML, Moubarac JC, Mozaffarian D, Monteiro CA. Ultra-processed foods and added sugars in the US diet: evidence from a nationally representative cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2016;6(3):e009892. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009892.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Poti JM, Mendez MA, Ng SW, Popkin BM. Is the degree of food processing and convenience linked with the nutritional quality of foods purchased by US households? Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;101(6):1251–62. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.100925.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Ludwig DS. Technology, diet, and the burden of chronic disease. JAMA. 2011;305(13):1352–3. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.380.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Fardet A, Rock E, Bassama J, Bohuon P, Prabhasankar P, Monteiro C, et al. Current food classifications in epidemiological studies do not enable solid nutritional recommendations for preventing diet-related chronic diseases: the impact of food processing. Adv Nutr. 2015;6(6):629–38. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.115.008789.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Popkin BM. Relationship between shifts in food system dynamics and acceleration of the global nutrition transition. Nutr Rev. 2017;75(2):73–82. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuw064.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in diet and lifestyle and long-term weight gain in women and men. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(25):2392–404. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1014296.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Malik VS, Pan A, Willett WC, Hu FB. Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;98(4):1084–102. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.058362.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Hu FB. Resolved: there is sufficient scientific evidence that decreasing sugar-sweetened beverage consumption will reduce the prevalence of obesity and obesity-related diseases. Obes Rev. 2013;14(8):606–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12040.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Nago ES, Lachat CK, Dossa RA, Kolsteren PW. Association of out-of-home eating with anthropometric changes: a systematic review of prospective studies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2014;54(9):1103–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2011.627095.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Bertoia ML, Mukamal KJ, Cahill LE, Hou T, Ludwig DS, Mozaffarian D, et al. Changes in intake of fruits and vegetables and weight change in United States men and women followed for up to 24 years: analysis from three prospective cohort studies. PLoS Med. 2015;12(9):e1001878. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001878.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Williams PG, Grafenauer SJ, O'Shea JE. Cereal grains, legumes, and weight management: a comprehensive review of the scientific evidence. Nutr Rev. 2008;66(4):171–82. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2008.00022.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Alinia S, Hels O, Tetens I. The potential association between fruit intake and body weight—a review. Obes Rev. 2009;10(6):639–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2009.00582.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Summerbell CD, Douthwaite W, Whittaker V, Ells LJ, Hillier F, Smith S, et al. The association between diet and physical activity and subsequent excess weight gain and obesity assessed at 5 years of age or older: a systematic review of the epidemiological evidence. Int J Obes. 2009;33(Suppl 3):S1–92. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2009.80.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Martins AP, Levy RB, Claro RM, Moubarac JC, Monteiro CA. Increased contribution of ultra-processed food products in the Brazilian diet (1987–2009). Rev Saude Publica. 2013;47(4):656–65. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-8910.2013047004968.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Costa Louzada ML, Martins AP, Canella DS, Baraldi LG, Levy RB, Claro RM, et al. Ultra-processed foods and the nutritional dietary profile in Brazil. Rev Saude Publica. 2015;49:38. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-8910.2015049006132.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Louzada ML, Martins AP, Canella DS, Baraldi LG, Levy RB, Claro RM, et al. Impact of ultra-processed foods on micronutrient content in the Brazilian diet. Rev Saude Publica. 2015;49:45. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-8910.2015049006211.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Bielemann RM, Motta JV, Minten GC, Horta BL, Gigante DP. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and their impact on the diet of young adults. Rev Saude Publica. 2015;49:28.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Cediel G, Reyes M, da Costa Louzada ML, Martinez Steele E, Monteiro CA, Corvalan C, et al. Ultra-processed foods and added sugars in the Chilean diet. Public Health Nutr. 2010;2017:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017001161.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Cornwell B, Villamor E, Mora-Plazas M, Marin C, Monteiro CA, Baylin A. Processed and ultra-processed foods are associated with lower-quality nutrient profiles in children from Colombia. Public Health Nutr. 2017:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017000891.

  38. Setyowati D, Andarwulan N, Giriwono PE. Processed and ultraprocessed food consumption pattern in the Jakarta Individual Food Consumption Survey 2014. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2017;27(4):1–15. https://doi.org/10.6133/apjcn.062017.01.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Rischke R, Kimenju SC, Klasen S, Qaim M. Supermarkets and food consumption patterns: the case of small towns in Kenya. Food Policy. 2015;52:9–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Monteiro CA, Moubarac JC, Levy RB, Canella DS, Louzada M, Cannon G. Household availability of ultra-processed foods and obesity in nineteen European countries. Public Health Nutr. 2017:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017001379.

  41. Julia C, Martinez L, Alles B, Touvier M, Hercberg S, Mejean C, et al. Contribution of ultra-processed foods in the diet of adults from the French NutriNet-Sante study. Public Health Nutr. 2017:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017001367.

  42. Solberg SL, Terragni L, Granheim SI. Ultra-processed food purchases in Norway: a quantitative study on a representative sample of food retailers. Public Health Nutr. 2016;19(11):1990–2001. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980015003523.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Djupegot IL, Nenseth CB, Bere E, Bjornara HBT, Helland SH, Overby NC, et al. The association between time scarcity, sociodemographic correlates and consumption of ultra-processed foods among parents in Norway: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2017;17(1):447. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4408-3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Juul F, Hemmingsson E. Trends in consumption of ultra-processed foods and obesity in Sweden between 1960 and 2010. Public Health Nutr. 2015;18(17):3096–107. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980015000506.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. O'Halloran SA, Lacy KE, Grimes CA, Woods J, Campbell KJ, Nowson CA. A novel processed food classification system applied to Australian food composition databases. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1111/jhn.12445.

  46. Venn D, Banwell C, Dixon J. Australia’s evolving food practices: a risky mix of continuity and change. Public Health Nutr. 2016:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001600255X.

  47. Luiten CM, Steenhuis IH, Eyles H, Ni Mhurchu C, Waterlander WE. Ultra-processed foods have the worst nutrient profile, yet they are the most available packaged products in a sample of New Zealand supermarkets. Public Health Nutr. 2015:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980015002177.

  48. Poti JM, Mendez MA, Ng SW, Popkin BM. Highly processed and ready-to-eat packaged food and beverage purchases differ by race/ethnicity among US households. J Nutr. 2016;146(9):1722–30. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.116.230441.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Martinez Steele E, Popkin BM, Swinburn B, Monteiro CA. The share of ultra-processed foods and the overall nutritional quality of diets in the US: evidence from a nationally representative cross-sectional study. Popul Health Metrics. 2017;15(1):6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12963-017-0119-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Moubarac JC, Batal M, Martins AP, Claro R, Levy RB, Cannon G, et al. Processed and ultra-processed food products: consumption trends in Canada from 1938 to 2011. Can J Diet Pract Res. 2014;75(1):15–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Moubarac JC, Batal M, Louzada ML, Martinez Steele E, Monteiro CA. Consumption of ultra-processed foods predicts diet quality in Canada. Appetite. 2017;108:512–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2016.11.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. • Adams J, White M. Characterisation of UK diets according to degree of food processing and associations with socio-demographics and obesity: cross-sectional analysis of UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2008–12). Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2015;12:160. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-015-0317-y. This cross-sectional study found that higher consumption of processed/ultra-processed food among adults in the UK was not associated with BMI or the likelihood of being overweight/obese or being obese.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Asfaw A. Does consumption of processed foods explain disparities in the body weight of individuals? The case of Guatemala. Health Econ. 2011;20(2):184–95. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1579.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. • Canella DS, Levy RB, Martins AP, Claro RM, Moubarac JC, Baraldi LG, et al. Ultra-processed food products and obesity in Brazilian households (2008–2009). PLoS One. 2014;9(3):e92752. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0092752. This cross-sectional study found that, in a nationally representative sample of Brazilians, the prevalence of obesity was 3.7 percentage points higher among children and adults living in household strata in the highest compared with lowest quartile of ultra-processed food purchases.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. •• Louzada ML, Baraldi LG, Steele EM, Martins AP, Canella DS, Moubarac JC, et al. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and obesity in Brazilian adolescents and adults. Prev Med. 2015;81:9–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.07.018. This cross-sectional study was the first to assess the relationship between ultra-processed food consumption and obesity using dietary intake rather than food purchases. In a nationally representative sample, Brazilians in the highest quintile of ultra-processed food consumption had 0.94 kg/m 2 higher BMI and were 26% more likely to be obese compared with those in the lowest quintile.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. •• Mendonca RD, Pimenta AM, Gea A, de la Fuente-Arrillaga C, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, Lopes AC, et al. Ultraprocessed food consumption and risk of overweight and obesity: the University of Navarra Follow-Up (SUN) cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016;104(5):1433–40. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.116.135004. This investigation is the first prospective cohort to examine the association between ultra-processed food consumption and incident overweight/obesity. Highly educated middle-aged Spanish adults in the highest quartile of ultra-processed food intake at baseline had a 26% higher risk of developing overweight/obesity over a mean of 9 years of follow-up than those in the lowest quartile.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Tavares LF, Fonseca SC, Garcia Rosa ML, Yokoo EM. Relationship between ultra-processed foods and metabolic syndrome in adolescents from a Brazilian Family Doctor Program. Public Health Nutr. 2012;15(1):82–7. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980011001571.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. •• Rauber F, Campagnolo PD, Hoffman DJ, Vitolo MR. Consumption of ultra-processed food products and its effects on children’s lipid profiles: a longitudinal study. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2015;25(1):116–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2014.08.001. This study is the first prospective investigation to examine the association between ultra-processed food intake and changes in lipid profiles. Higher ultra-processed food intake among Brazilian preschoolers was associated with greater increases in total and LDL cholesterol between ages 3–4 and 7–8 years.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. • Rinaldi AE, Gabriel GF, Moreto F, Corrente JE, KC ML, Burini RC. Dietary factors associated with metabolic syndrome and its components in overweight and obese Brazilian schoolchildren: a cross-sectional study. Diabetol Metab Syndr. 2016;8(1):58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13098-016-0178-9. This cross-sectional examination found that higher processed industrialized food intake was associated with higher fasting glucose, but was not associated with waist circumference, blood pressure, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, or metabolic syndrome among school-aged children with overweight/obesity in Brazil.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. • Lavigne-Robichaud M, Moubarac JC, Lantagne-Lopez S, Johnson-Down L, Batal M, Laouan Sidi EA et al. Diet quality indices in relation to metabolic syndrome in an Indigenous Cree (Eeyouch) population in northern Quebec, Canada. Public Health Nutr. 2017:1–9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001700115X. This cross-sectional study found that higher consumption of ultra-processed food was associated with increased likelihood of having metabolic syndrome among Eeyouch adults in Quebec, Canada.

  61. •• Mendonca RD, Lopes AC, Pimenta AM, Gea A, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, Bes-Rastrollo M. Ultra-processed food consumption and the incidence of hypertension in a Mediterranean cohort: the Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra Project. Am J Hypertens. 2017;30(4):358–66. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpw137. This paper presents the first prospective cohort study to evaluate the association between ultra-processed food consumption and risk of hypertension. Highly educated middle-aged Spanish adults in the highest tertile of ultra-processed food consumption had a 21% higher risk of developing hypertension over a mean of 9 years of follow-up compared with those in the lowest tertile.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Perez-Escamilla R, Obbagy JE, Altman JM, Essery EV, McGrane MM, Wong YP, et al. Dietary energy density and body weight in adults and children: a systematic review. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2012;112(5):671–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2012.01.020.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Rouhani MH, Haghighatdoost F, Surkan PJ, Azadbakht L. Associations between dietary energy density and obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Nutrition. 2016;32(10):1037–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2016.03.017.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Hall KD. A review of the carbohydrate-insulin model of obesity. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2017;71(3):323–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2016.260.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Schulte EM, Avena NM, Gearhardt AN. Which foods may be addictive? The roles of processing, fat content, and glycemic load. PLoS One. 2015;10(2):e0117959. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117959.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Carter A, Hendrikse J, Lee N, Yucel M, Verdejo-Garcia A, Andrews Z, et al. The neurobiology of “food addiction” and its implications for obesity treatment and policy. Annu Rev Nutr. 2016;36:105–28. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071715-050909.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Steenhuis I, Poelman M. Portion size: latest developments and interventions. Curr Obes Rep. 2017;6(1):10–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-017-0239-x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Peter Herman C, Polivy J, Pliner P, Vartanian LR. Mechanisms underlying the portion-size effect. Physiol Behav. 2015;144:129–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.03.025.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Sadeghirad B, Duhaney T, Motaghipisheh S, Campbell NR, Johnston BC. Influence of unhealthy food and beverage marketing on children’s dietary intake and preference: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Obes Rev. 2016;17(10):945–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12445.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Boyland EJ, Nolan S, Kelly B, Tudur-Smith C, Jones A, Halford JC, et al. Advertising as a cue to consume: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of acute exposure to unhealthy food and nonalcoholic beverage advertising on intake in children and adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016;103(2):519–33. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.120022.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Gearhardt AN, Davis C, Kuschner R, Brownell KD. The addiction potential of hyperpalatable foods. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2011;4(3):140–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Fardet A. Minimally processed foods are more satiating and less hyperglycemic than ultra-processed foods: a preliminary study with 98 ready-to-eat foods. Food Funct. 2016;7(5):2338–46. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6fo00107f.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Viskaal-van Dongen M, Kok FJ, de Graaf C. Eating rate of commonly consumed foods promotes food and energy intake. Appetite. 2011;56(1):25–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2010.11.141.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Robinson E, Almiron-Roig E, Rutters F, de Graaf C, Forde CG, Tudur Smith C, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis examining the effect of eating rate on energy intake and hunger. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;100(1):123–51. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.081745.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Robinson E, Aveyard P, Daley A, Jolly K, Lewis A, Lycett D, et al. Eating attentively: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect of food intake memory and awareness on eating. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;97(4):728–42. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.112.045245.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Monteiro C, Cannon G, Levy R, Moubarac J-C, Jaime P, Martins A, et al. NOVA the star shines bright. World Nutr. 2016;7(1–3):28–38.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Mattei J, Malik V, Wedick NM, Hu FB, Spiegelman D, Willett WC, et al. Reducing the global burden of type 2 diabetes by improving the quality of staple foods: the Global Nutrition and Epidemiologic Transition Initiative. Glob Health. 2015;11:23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-015-0109-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. McClure ST, Appel LJ. Food processing and incident hypertension: causal relationship, confounding, or both? Am J Hypertens. 2017;30(4):348–9. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpw170.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Eicher-Miller HA, Fulgoni VL 3rd, Keast DR. Contributions of processed foods to dietary intake in the US from 2003–2008: a report of the Food and Nutrition Science Solutions Joint Task Force of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, American Society for Nutrition, Institute of Food Technologists, and International Food Information Council. J Nutr. 2012;142(11):2065S–72S. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.112.164442.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. Weaver CM, Dwyer J, Fulgoni VL 3rd, King JC, Leveille GA, MacDonald RS, et al. Processed foods: contributions to nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;99(6):1525–42. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.089284.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Botelho R, Araujo W, Pineli L. Food formulation and not processing level: conceptual divergences between public health and food science and technology sectors. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2016:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2016.1209159.

  82. Wolfson JA, Bleich SN, Smith KC, Frattaroli S. What does cooking mean to you? Perceptions of cooking and factors related to cooking behavior. Appetite. 2016;97:146-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2015.11.030.

  83. Trattner C, Elsweiler D, Howard S. Estimating the healthiness of internet recipes: a cross-sectional study. Front Public Health. 2017;5:16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00016.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Kretser A, Dunn C, DeVirgiliis R, Levine K. Utility of a new food value analysis application to evaluate trade-offs when making food selections. Nutr Today. 2014;49(4):185–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Schneider EP, McGovern EE, Lynch CL, Brown LS. Do food blogs serve as a source of nutritionally balanced recipes? An analysis of 6 popular food blogs. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2013;45(6):696–700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2013.07.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Howard S, Adams J, White M. Nutritional content of supermarket ready meals and recipes by television chefs in the United Kingdom: cross sectional study. BMJ. 2012;345:e7607. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.e7607.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Mackay S, Vandevijvere S, Xie P, Lee A, Swinburn B. Paying for convenience: comparing the cost of takeaway meals with their healthier home-cooked counterparts in New Zealand. Public Health Nutr. 2017;20(13):2269–76. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017000805.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This work was supported by the NIH (R01DK098072, DK56350) and the Carolina Population Center and its NIH Center grant (P2C HD050924) at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Nutrition, Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Campus Box #7461, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA

    Jennifer M. Poti

  2. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

    Bianca Braga

  3. Department of International Studies, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos Aires, Argentina

    Bianca Braga

  4. Population Science, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA

    Bo Qin

Authors
  1. Jennifer M. Poti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Bianca Braga
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Bo Qin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jennifer M. Poti.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

Jennifer M. Poti, Bianca Braga, and Bo Qin declare they have no conflict of interest.

Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

This article is part of the Topical Collection on The Obesity Epidemic: Causes and Consequences

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Poti, J.M., Braga, B. & Qin, B. Ultra-processed Food Intake and Obesity: What Really Matters for Health—Processing or Nutrient Content?. Curr Obes Rep 6, 420–431 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-017-0285-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-017-0285-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation