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Simulation-Based Exergy Analysis of Large Circular Economy Systems: Zinc Production Coupled to CdTe Photovoltaic Module Life Cycle

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Abstract

The second law of thermodynamics (2LT) helps to quantify the limits as well as the resource efficiency of the circular economy (CE) in the transformation of resources, which include materials, energy, or water, into products and residues, some of which will be irreversibly lost. Furthermore, material and energy losses will also occur, as well as the residues and emissions that are generated have an environmental impact. Identifying the limits of circularity of large-scale CE systems, i.e., flowsheets, is necessary to understand the viability of the CE. With this deeper understanding, the full social, environmental, and economic sustainability can be explored. Exergy dissipation, a measure of resource consumption, material recoveries, and environmental impact indicators together provide a quantitative basis for designing a resource-efficient CE system. Unique and very large simulation models, linking up to 223 detailed modeled unit operations, over 860 flows and 30 elements, and all associated compounds, apply this thermoeconomic (exergy-based) methodology showing (i) the resource efficiency limits, in terms of material losses and exergy dissipation of the CdTe photovoltaic (PV) module CE system (i.e., from ore to metal production, PV module production, and end-of-life recycling of the original metal into the system again) and (ii) the analysis of the zinc processing subsystem of the CdTe PV system, for which the material recovery, resource consumption, and environmental impacts of different processing routes were evaluated, and the most resource-efficient alternative to minimize the residue production during zinc production was selected. This study also quantifies the key role that metallurgy plays in enabling sustainability. Therefore, it highlights the criticality of the metallurgical infrastructure to the CE, above and beyond simply focusing on the criticality of the elements.

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Acknowledgements

This research has received funding from the European Commission’s H2020—Marie Sklodowska Curie Actions (MSCA)—Innovative Training Networks within SOCRATES (Website http://etn-socrates.eu) project under the Grant Agreement No. 721385. This work reflects only the author’s view, exempting the Community from any liability. The authors also acknowledge the reviewers for their comments that greatly improved the manuscript, especially also prompting the drawing of the revised Fig. 1, which now nicely reflects the inconvenient truth around the circular economy and captures succinctly the message of this paper.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg, Institute for Nonferrous Metallurgy and Purest Materials, Leipziger Str. 34, 09599, Freiberg, Germany

    A. Abadías Llamas, M. Stelter & M. A. Reuter

  2. Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology, Chemnitzer Str. 40, 09599, Freiberg, Germany

    A. Abadías Llamas, N. J. Bartie, M. Heibeck & M. A. Reuter

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  1. A. Abadías Llamas
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  2. N. J. Bartie
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Correspondence to A. Abadías Llamas or M. A. Reuter.

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Appendix

Appendix

See Figs. 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35.

Fig. 17
figure 17

Primary copper flowsheet located in the tab “i” of the simulation pane in Fig. 3 (Color figure online)

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Fig. 18
figure 18

Gas cleaning flowsheet of primary copper production located in tab “ii” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 19
figure 19

Electric reduction furnace flowsheet located in tab “iii” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 20
figure 20

Copper/cobalt–nickel solvent extraction flowsheet located in tab “iv” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 21
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Cobalt/nickel solvent extraction flowsheet located in tab “v” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 22
figure 22

Precious metals’ recovery flowsheet located in tab “vi” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 23
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Tellurium production flowsheet located in tab “vii” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 24
figure 24

Energy production flowsheet located in tab “viii” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 25
figure 25

Sulfur capture flowsheet located in tab “ix” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 26
figure 26

Oxygen production flowsheet located in tab “x” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 27
figure 27

Electrolyte cleaning flowsheet located in tab “xi” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 28
figure 28

Secondary copper flowsheet located in tab “xii” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 29
figure 29

Roast-leach-electrowinning flowsheet located in tab “xiii” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 30
figure 30

Jarosite precipitation and cadmium purification flowsheets located in tab “xiv” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 31
figure 31

Direct zinc smelting flowsheet located in tab “xv” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 32
figure 32

Lead production and refining flowsheets located in tab “xvi” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 33
figure 33

Zinc fumer flowsheet located in tab “xvii” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 34
figure 34

CdTe PV module manufacturing flowsheet located in tab “xviii” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Fig. 35
figure 35

CdTe PV module recycling flowsheet located in tab “xix” of the simulation pane (Color figure online)

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Abadías Llamas, A., Bartie, N.J., Heibeck, M. et al. Simulation-Based Exergy Analysis of Large Circular Economy Systems: Zinc Production Coupled to CdTe Photovoltaic Module Life Cycle. J. Sustain. Metall. 6, 34–67 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-019-00255-5

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