Biology and control of Varroa destructor

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Abstract

The ectoparasitic honey bee mite Varroa destructor was originally confined to the Eastern honey bee Apis cerana. After a shift to the new host Apis mellifera during the first half of the last century, the parasite dispersed world wide and is currently considered the major threat for apiculture. The damage caused by Varroosis is thought to be a crucial driver for the periodical colony losses in Europe and the USA and regular Varroa treatments are essential in these countries. Therefore, Varroa research not only deals with a fascinating host–parasite relationship but also has a responsibility to find sustainable solutions for the beekeeping.

This review provides a survey of the current knowledge in the main fields of Varroa research including the biology of the mite, damage to the host, host tolerance, tolerance breeding and Varroa treatment. We first present a general view on the functional morphology and on the biology of the Varroa mite with special emphasis on host–parasite interactions during reproduction of the female mite. The pathology section describes host damage at the individual and colony level including the problem of transmission of secondary infections by the mite. Knowledge of both the biology and the pathology of Varroa mites is essential for understanding possible tolerance mechanisms in the honey bee host. We comment on the few examples of natural tolerance in A. mellifera and evaluate recent approaches to the selection of Varroa tolerant honey bees. Finally, an extensive listing and critical evaluation of chemical and biological methods of Varroa treatments is given.

This compilation of present-day knowledge on Varroa honey bee interactions emphasizes that we are still far from a solution for Varroa infestation and that, therefore, further research on mite biology, tolerance breeding, and Varroa treatment is urgently needed.

Introduction

The hemophagous honey bee mite Varroa destructor is still the greatest threat for apiculture. No other pathogen has had a comparable impact on both beekeeping and honey bee research during the long history of apiculture. There are several reasons for this unique status of Varroa mites:

  • (1)

    V. destructor is a new parasite of the honey bee A. mellifera. Therefore, a balanced host–parasite relationship is lacking and beekeepers do not have long-term experience in dealing with this pest.

  • (2)

    V. destructor has spread almost worldwide within a short time period and it may now be difficult to find a “Varroa free” honey bee colony anywhere, other than in Australia.

  • (3)

    Without periodic treatment, most of the honey bee colonies in temperate climates would collapse within a 2–3 year period.

  • (4)

    Regular treatments increase the costs for beekeeping and the risk of chemical residues in bee products.

  • (5)

    The Varroa mite is considered a crucial factor in the decreasing numbers of beekeepers and honey bee colonies in Europe; together with the worldwide decline of natural pollinators, the Varroa mite may exacerbate future problems for pollination (De la Rua et al., 2009).

Therefore, Varroa research is a challenge for all scientists working in the fields of apiculture, insect pathology and acarology. We will present a general view on the biology of the Varroa mite with special emphasis on recent results on host–parasite interactions, breeding honey bees for tolerance, and treatment for Varroa infestation.

Section snippets

Taxonomy, morphology and geographical distribution

The mite which is responsible for the clinical symptoms of “Varroosis” in A. mellifera belongs to the species V. destructor, which was assumed to be Varroa jacobsoni until the year 2000 (Anderson and Trueman, 2000). Therefore, all Varroa articles from the last century refer to V. jacobsoni although in nearly all cases V. destructor was the research subject.

The Genus Varroa is currently represented by at least four species of obligate ectoparasitic mites (Table 1):

  • Varroa jacobsoni Oudemans was

Mite biology and behavior

The host finding and reproductive behavior of V. destructor is essential for understanding the population dynamics of the parasite, but it is also of particular significance for the beekeeping practice. Certain cues for the orientation of the mites could be used for development of biological control methods such as traps, repellents or mating disruption by certain pheromones. The control of reproduction of a parasite is, in general, a crucial point for the stability of a host–parasite

Damage at the individual level

The individual honey bee is damaged in a variety of ways, with the developing larvae and pupae clearly representing the most sensitive host stages. First, the loss of hemolymph during the ontogenetic development within the brood cell significantly decreases the weight of the hatching bee. The weight loss depends on the number of mother mites and the amount of mite reproduction, but even a single infestation results in an average loss of body weight of 7% for the hatching bee (De Jong et al.,

Natural selection

The most striking example of a balanced host–parasite relationship is that of the original host A. cerana and V. destructor/V. jacobsoni. In this host species, three extraordinary host factors are described which obviously are sufficient to control the growth of the Varroa population and prevent any visible damage to the infested colonies:

  • No reproduction in worker brood at all (Boot et al., 1999, Garrido, 2004, Koeniger et al., 1981, Rath, 1999, Rosenkranz et al., 1993a). Therefore, the

Control

The first “official” detection of Varroa mites in a country is usually followed by intensive activities of the responsible bee scientists, extension services and veterinary authorities in order to control the spread of the mite and prevent collapse of honey bee colonies. During the first phase, damage and losses of colonies are common due to the lack of knowledge in control methods. A selection of beekeepers often occurs during the first 10 years, based on whether they are willing or able to

Summary and outlook

Varroa mites have been considered a problem for beekeeping for about 40 years; 10 years later the mite reached Western Europe and South-America and another 10 years later, the United States. So, we now look back on more than 30 years of intensive research on various aspects of the biology, pathology and management of this parasite. To summarize the efforts we can state that we have significantly increased our knowledge on mite distribution, pathogenesis, host–parasite interactions and effective use

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest to be declared.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Elke Genersch and Ingemar Fries for providing helpful comments to the manuscript, Bryony C. Bonning for language editing and all the editoral board for the invitation to this review article.

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