Vehicle-to-grid power implementation: From stabilizing the grid to supporting large-scale renewable energy
Introduction
This article builds upon the article “Vehicle-to-grid power fundamentals (V2G): calculating capacity and net revenue” [1]. That companion article develops equations to calculate the power capacity and revenues for electric-drive vehicles used to provide power for several power markets. This article quantitatively places vehicle-to-grid power within the existing electric system, and covers implementation, business models, and the steps in the transition process. It calculates the amount of V2G necessary to stabilize large-scale solar electricity for peak power, and large-scale wind for baseload power.
Section snippets
Comparing the electric grid and vehicle fleet as power systems
During the 20th century, industrialized countries developed two massive but separate energy conversion systems—the electric utility system and the light vehicle fleet. In the United States, for example, there are over 9351 electric utility generators with a total power capacity of 602 GW (plus 209 GW from non-utility generators) [2]. These generators convert stored energy (chemical, mechanical, and nuclear) to electric current, which moves through an interconnected national transmission and
Types of vehicles and types of power markets
We review distinctions among EDV types and power markets very briefly in this section to make this article readable independently from the more detailed discussion of these in our companion article [1]. The three vehicle types are: (1) fuel cell, which produces electricity on-board from a fuel, such as hydrogen, (2) battery, which stores power from the electric grid in an electrochemical cell, and (3) hybrid, which produces electricity on-board from an internal combustion engine turning a
Strategies to reconcile the needs of the driver and grid operator
Central to the viability of V2G are the needs and desired functions of the two human parties—the driver and the grid operator. The driver needs enough stored energy on-board (electric charge or fuel) for driving needs. The grid operator needs power generation to be turned on and off at precise times. Three strategies for V2G can resolve potential conflicts: (1) add extra energy storage to vehicle, (2) draw V2G from fleets with scheduled usage, and (3) use intelligent controls for complementary
Business models
We now consider several business models that have been proposed for V2G [1], [17], [36]. The business models are overlays on the strategies above, specifying the types of institutions and financial transactions that would make V2G profitable for a business.
Under current rules, most large generators contract with the grid operators to provide spinning reserves or regulation, typically with a minimum of 1 MW quantities. During the time of that contract, the grid operator sends a signal when the
Dispatch of vehicles
Regardless of business model, if there is a complementary-needs strategy (either for a commercial fleet or for dispersed vehicles), we need to manage the vehicles’ on-board storage. In management of power plants, “dispatch” refers to the timing and control of power plants, turning them on and off to match system needs. We extend the term here to refer to the same strategic control of vehicles in order to meet both driving needs and grid management needs.
Renewable energy storage and backup
The most important role for V2G may ultimately be in emerging power markets to support renewable energy. The two largest renewable sources likely to be widely used in the near future, photovoltaic (PV) and wind turbines, are both intermittent.3
Transition path
Initial V2G proof-of-concept, prototyping and device-level testing has already been carried out and at least one V2G-capable controller for EDVs is commercially available [53]. A V2G-capable vehicle has been designed, developed, built, driven, and extensively shop-tested [36]. With an added wireless link to the grid operator, it has been tested, both driving and providing regulation up and down over several months [37]. This single-vehicle demo has proven complete on-board V2G equipment,
Jurisdictions well-suited to adopt V2G
Which jurisdictions (that is, nations, states, or provinces) might be expected to have earlier and greater interest in V2G implementation? Below we describe characteristics of jurisdictions that we would expect might motivate earlier V2G development. Such jurisdictions would:
- 1.
Want electric grid improvements, higher reliability, and more frequency stability, but prefer to avoid construction of new power plants and transmission lines.
- 2.
Be in geographic areas where a population of automobiles (e.g.,
Conclusions
This article began with a broad comparison of two immense energy conversion systems, finding them surprisingly complementary. The electric grid has high capital costs and low production costs; the automobile fleet is the reverse. Electric generators are in use 57% of the time, automobiles only 4%. The electric grid has no storage; the automobile fleet inherently must have storage to meet its transportation function. Based on the contrasts between these systems, we lay out management strategies,
Acknowledgments
For comments on this article, we are grateful to Dave Denkenberger, Anita Eide, Thomas B. Gage, Steve Letendre, and Karen E. Thomas-Alyea. We thank Cristina Lozej Archer for providing unpublished wind power data. The development of these ideas has been facilitated by discussions with many individuals at universities, utilities and ISOs and by grants and contracts from the California Air Resources Board, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, Conectiv Power Delivery, and the Steven and
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