Anthracology and taphonomy, from wood gathering to charcoal analysis. A review of the taphonomic processes modifying charcoal assemblages, in archaeological contexts

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Abstract

A discussion on the representativeness of charcoal from archaeological contexts and their potential for palaeoecological reconstruction is presented. The charcoal deposits studied are the result of human activities and natural processes, difficult to separate on the basis of their effects only. This is why “taphonomy” should not be limited to the study of charcoal, after the extinction of fire. As a result our questioning has been widened to include the entire succession of processes, from past vegetation to the anthracological diagram. We propose a review of the taphonomic processes affecting anthracological assemblages in archaeological contexts, from wood gathering to the analysis of charcoal results. Human practices appear clearly as the first filter determining or conditioning the assemblage. The combustion process can induce a double filter by limiting the taxonomic information and by falsifying the initial quantity of burned wood. Post-depositional agents represent a third level of filters between the vegetation and the anthracological assemblage. Finally, sampling and quantification methods can also induce a distortion of the assemblage. The aim of this paper is to present the state of the discipline today, the problems already solved, and the questions that remain to be studied.

Section snippets

What is taphonomy?

Among the scientific community, an ongoing debate exists on the definition of taphonomy. This term first used by Efremov (1940), derives from the Greek Taphos (tomb) and Nomos (law), and literally means “law of burying”. According to Efremov (1940), this term refers to all the processes occurring after the death of an organism up until its fossilization. Strictly speaking, this definition, as applied to our research field, would limit taphonomy to the study of charcoal ‘evolution’, right after

A broad definition of taphonomy: from wood gathering to charcoal analysis

The nature of the processes involved is diverse (Fig. 1): (1) human practices with wood collecting and hearth management, (2) combustion itself and (3) depositional and post-depositional processes. According to some authors, only these last processes should be included in the definition of “taphonomy”. Furthermore, we also believe that “archaeologist” and “anthracologist” filters should also be considered as sampling and quantification methods, may also distort the final assemblage. All of

Charcoal analysis and taphonomy: a recent history

Taphonomic studies of charcoal are fairly recent in archaeological contexts. What are the reasons for this slow evolution of the discipline in archaeological contexts?

Charcoal analysis began in the 40s (Salysbury and Jane, 1940, Godwin and Tansley, 1941, Balout, 1952, Santa 1961, Couvert, 1968, Couvert, 1969a, Couvert, 1969b), and developed when reflected light microscopy allowed the systematic and rapid identification of charcoals (Western, 1963, Stieber, 1967, Stieber, 1969, Western, 1971,

The societal filter

When questioning the biases affecting the representativeness of the charcoal assemblage, man appears clearly as the first filter. His choices, his preferences and his actions determine or condition the assemblage. Indeed, the question of specific wood selection as a bias of the assemblage appears as a justified debate. However, arguments used are almost always the result of a direct transfer from our subjective vision of human practices towards archaeological situations. In general, no precise

The combustion filter

The combustion process is a second level of filter that can lead to notable modifications of the archaeological record. Morphological, chemical and physical properties of chard vary upon two main variables that are (1) heat source related variables and (2) wood property variables (Braadbaart and Poole, 2008). As a result, Braadbaart and Poole propose a terminological distinction between the terms “carbonization” and “charring”. According to these authors, “carbonization” corresponds to wood

The filter of depositional and post-depositional processes

In addition to societal factors and combustion processes, post-depositional agents represent a third level of filters between the vegetation and the charcoal assemblage. They are generated by several types of synchronic or successive phenomena: first of all, the anthropogenic agent will affect the charcoal deposits by trampling, re-workings, sweeping, and cleaning; secondly, living organisms induce bio-pedoturbations; atmospheric factors (runoff, wind action) lead to colluvioning or leaching;

Conclusion

We have considered, from an analytic point of view, the successive filters which transform the information from the past vegetation to the anthracological reconstruction.

It is important to notice that the whole process results from the non-linear interaction of a great number of factors (Fig. 13): societal factors (wood collecting modalities, energetic needs, types of structures, hearth maintenance, handcrafts, etc), settlement factors (type of dwelling, site status, duration of occupation,

Acknowledgment

We are grateful to Professor Freddy Damblon for his invitation to present a communication at the IVth IMA in Brussels. We are also grateful to Professor Andrew Scott for proposing to publish this volume. Special thanks to Isabel Figueiral, Auréade Henry and Louise Purdue for their helpful corrections of the manuscript.

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