Late Holocene Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Miller) woodlands in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Western Mediterranean): Investigation of their distribution and the role of human management based on anthracological, dendro-anthracological and archaeopalynological data
Introduction
The nature and phytosociological role of Mediterranean pines have been largely discussed in the botanical and paleobotanical literature. Mediterranean pines are especially adapted to post-fire regeneration and are important pioneering trees in forest regeneration processes after human disturbances. In the specific case of Aleppo pine, one of the most widespread Mediterranean conifers, serotony and early flowering are considered adaptive traits favouring survival after crown fires, even if the pine does not survive the fire itself (Tapias et al., 2004; Daskalakou and Thanos 1996; Thanos and Daskalakou 2000; Ne’ eman et al., 2004; Ne' eman and Izhaki, 2006; Pausas et al., 2004). This has been a relevant element in considering Aleppo pine a pioneer and invasive tree in Mediterranean environments (Pausas et al., 2002), often relating it to stages of the succession and environmental degradation of broadleaved forests formations (Bellot 1978; Peinado and Rivas-Martínez 1987).
In Mallorca, Aleppo pine woodlands represent the most widespread forest formations (IFN 2012) and have experienced a major increase since the mid-twentieth century, clearly favoured by changes in land use following abandoned agricultural lands and after fires (Berbiela 2015). In parallel, a negative social perception of this species has been increasing among the Balearic society, where, in many cases, it is considered an invasive tree brought by humans rather than via natural processes in the archipelago. It is also often considered fire-promoting and responsible for many plagues (Sureda-Negre et al., 2011).
However, recent research on Aleppo pine has noted that its adaptive and reproductive strategy, with partial serotony and quick initial growth, is relevant to competing where there are frequent fires and other edaphic and climatic constraints of the Mediterranean climate, especially drought (Martínez del Castilo et al., 2018; Ne’ eman et al., 2004). Furthermore, the paleoenvironmental literature has also indicated that the post-fire regeneration and colonisation of degraded lands after human action are not the only potential explanations for the presence and development of pines in Mediterranean environments (Carrión et al., 2010; Carrión and Fernández 2009), at least not until more recent historical times (Aranbarri et al., 2020). Pines could have constituted the climax vegetation in areas where arid conditions would not have allowed the development of other types of forests (Badal, 2013).
Regarding such current discussions on the phytoecological role of Aleppo pine and the impact of anthropogenic landscape management on its diachronic dynamics, in this article, we aim to (i) define the use of pinewood by prehistoric societies on the island of Mallorca during the first two millennia of permanent human occupation of all the biotopes of the island (c. 2300 cal. BCE–1st-century ACE) and (ii) investigate the nature of Aleppo pine woodlands on the island, assessing the role of anthropogenic landscape management in this species' distribution during the studied period, aided by the knowledge of its actual ecological and distributional characteristics. We approach these objectives using a multi-proxy strategy, combining different kinds of archaeobotanical data (i.e., anthracology, dendro-anthracology and archaeopalynology) and discussing them in relation to paleoenvironmental sequences and the dynamics of Aleppo pine in neighbouring continental areas (Iberia).
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Archaeological and environmental setting
Mallorca is the largest island of the Balearic archipelago, with a total surface of 3.620 Km2. The geology of the island is almost exclusively calcareous, with only some non-calcareous substratum (i.e., Palaeozoic and Triassic) in the northern mountain range (Rosselló et al., 2003). There are no permanent watercourses on the island; its hydrographic network is composed of streams with intermittent water flows, mainly during spring and autumn, when the most significant precipitation occurs.
Materials and methods: archaeobotanical records of Pinus halepensis Miller
Tracing the history of Aleppo pine woodlands on the island of Mallorca during the Late Holocene, including its anthropogenic use and potential influence on its distribution requires different kinds of archaeobotanical materials. Accordingly, this research is based on the compilation and analysis of published and unpublished charcoal and wooden fragments and pollen analysis of prehistoric and protohistoric archaeological sites on the island of Mallorca (Fig. 1) to gather information on both the
Archaeological wood and charcoal analysis
Thirty-seven assemblages of dispersed charcoal fragments were considered in this study (Table 1): 25 from the Llevant coast, 10 from the central plain, 1 from the Tramuntana mountain range and 1 from the islet of Na Galera (Fig. 2).
The Llevant region has the best chronological coverage, with samples from the Early Bronze Age to the 1st century ACE originating from five different archaeological sites. The different taxonomical categories change over time, and the values of Pinus are variable,
Pinewood exploitation on Mallorca during prehistory and protohistory
The use of pinewood by prehistoric groups on Mallorca is well attested from the end of the Chalcolithic, when the first anthracological assemblages appear (CM1, Fig. 2). The presence of pine charcoal fragments is ubiquitous in all regions and phases, but the percentages change from one period to the other. Regarding the archaeopalynological record, percentages of pine pollen grains vary from region to region and period to period. However, high percentages of pine pollen are not detected in any
Conclusions
Aleppo pine is a dominant species in all current tree-covered vegetation formations on the island of Mallorca, with the only exception being oak forests (Quercus ilex L.) and riparian forests. Pine-dominated woodlands represent the most widespread forest formations in the Balearic archipelago (IFN 2012). Ecological and reproductive studies suggest that this is because of its ecological plasticity and rapid post-fire regeneration due to serotony (Goubitz et al., 2003), a characteristic that also
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (the work of LPG -IJCI-2015-24550- and GSV -IJCI-2016-30581- was founded by Juan de la Cierva-Incorporación fellowships), the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (projects HAR2015-67211-P, PID2019-108692 GB-I00 and HAR2017–83656P), and by the Direcció General de Innovació i Recerca of the Government of the Balearic Islands (project PRD2018/19). Andrés Currás was funded by the Galician
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Anthropogenic impacts on vegetation landscapes and environmental implications during the Middle-Late Holocene in the Iberian Central Pre-Pyrenees: An anthracological approach
2022, Review of Palaeobotany and PalynologyCitation Excerpt :However, it is more controversial, or less obvious, which of the two agents, natural factors or the human activities, has been the main contributor to landscape transformation since the Middle-Late Holocene Boundary (4.2 ka BP), or indeed whether it has been a combination of both (see Jalut et al., 2000; Roberts et al., 2011). Holocene Mediterranean woodland history and landscape changes are here studied using a palaeoecological proxy, mainly pollen and charcoal data (e.g., Jalut et al., 2009; Woodbridge et al., 2018; Roberts et al., 2019; Picornell-Gelabert et al., 2020). According to the available palaeobotanical sequences in the NE Iberian Peninsula, at the end of the Late Pleistocene and the beginning of the Early Holocene, deciduous oak forest, broadleaf trees and pine forests were dominant in the area (Riera-Mora and Esteban-Amat, 1994; Burjachs et al., 1997; Riera et al., 2007; Allué et al., 2007, 2017; Carrión et al., 2010a; Pérez-Obiol et al., 2011; Fletcher et al., 2012; Revelles et al., 2015, 2018; González-Sampériz et al., 2017; Allué and Mas, 2020; Mas et al., 2021).
Anthracology: Charcoal Science in Archaeology and Palaeoecology
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