Global prospects, progress, policies, and environmental impact of solar photovoltaic power generation

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Abstract

Global energy demand and environmental concerns are the driving force for use of alternative, sustainable, and clean energy sources. Solar energy is the inexhaustible and CO2-emission-free energy source worldwide. The Sun provides 1.4×105 TW power as received on the surface of the Earth and about 3.6×104 TW of this power is usable. In 2012, world power consumption was 17 TW, which is less than 3.6×104 TW. Photovoltaic (PV) cells are the basic element for converting solar energy into electricity. PV cell technologies, energy conversion efficiency, economic analysis, energy policies, environmental impact, various applications, prospects, and progress have been comprehensively reviewed and presented in this paper. This work compiles the latest literature (i.e. journal articles, conference proceedings, and reports, among others) on PV power generation, economic analysis, environmental impact, and policies to increase public awareness. From the review, it was found that PV is an easy way to capture solar energy where PV based power generation has also rapidly increased.

Introduction

Energy is the driving force for development, economic growth, automation, and modernization. Energy usage and demand are increasing globally and researchers have taken this seriously to fulfill future energy demands [1], [2]. Most of the energy demand projections show that current and expected energy sources are not sustainable [3]. Renewable energy can be sources of sustainable power generation. Renewable energy usage has increased in recent years, but is not widespread. As an option for providing power, solar energy is gaining popularity [4]. Today, only 13% of energy comes from renewable sources (biofuel and waste 10%, hydro 2.3% and others: solar, wind, geothermal, heat, among others 0.9%), 81% fossil fuels (oil 32.4%, natural gas 21.4%, and coal 27.3%), and 5.7% nuclear power [3], [5]. Fig. 1 shows the worldwide sources of total primary energy supply in 2010.

Fig. 1 further indicates that at present global energy sources are mainly dependent on fossil fuels and the use of fossil fuel is the main reason for global increases of CO2 density [6]. According to global carbon emissions source [7], carbon dioxide emissions from coal, oil, natural gas, cement, and gas flaring were 43%, 33%, 18%, 5.3%, and 0.6%, respectively in 2012. Emissions of greenhouse gases grew 2.2% per year between 2000 and 2010, compared with 1.3% per year from 1970 to 2000 [8], [9]. The world is not capable of absorbing large amounts of CO2 at the rate it is produced by fossil fuels. As a result, increasing the volume of CO2 in the environment has increased global warming and further climate change. Global warming and climate changes are challenging all over the world. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report, global warming will continue to increase unless there is a quick shift towards clean energy and cuts in the emission of CO2. Therefore, if CO2 emissions continue then acidification and global warming will also continue. Table 1 shows Global CO2 emissions from 2006 to 2012.

The use of renewable energy provides benefits that reduce emissions of air pollutants as well as greenhouse gases (GHG) [10]. Therefore, alternative sources of energy are needed so that mankind can survive on the Earth without depending on fossil fuels [11]. Solar energy is one of the renewable energy sources that will contribute to the security of future energy supplies [12]. Solar energy has obvious environmental advantages over other energy sources and will not deplete as a natural resource, produce CO2 emission, or generate liquid or solid waste products [13], [14], [15]. Many countries have been forced to change to environmental friendly energy sources and have chosen solar energy as an alternative energy source because it has the least negative impact on the environment to overcome the negative impacts of fossil fuels [13].

Photovoltaic (PV) is the direct conversion system that converts sunlight into electricity without the help of machines or any moving devices. It is an inexhaustible energy source. PV systems offer longer service times with minimum maintenance costs. PV elements are scratchy, simple to design, and their construction as stand-alone system provide output from micro-power to mega-power. So, the system is used as a power generation source, for water pumping, in remote buildings, in solar home systems, for communications, for satellites, for space vehicles, for reverse osmosis in plants, and even for megawatt-scale power plants. Parida et al. [16] discussed PV technology, power generation, PV materials, application of PV, environmental impact, different existing performances, and reliability evaluation models, sizing and control, grid connection and distribution. Chaar et al. [17] reviewed PV technology with different types of PV (crystalline, thin film, compound, and nanotechnology). Chen et al. [18] performed a study on PV generation system, energy demand, financial analysis, payback period, internal rate of return, cash flow, the operation cost, as well as capital investment costs for PV generation systems. Tyagi et al. [19] investigated the current global status of PV technology, PV cells materials (e.g. crystalline, thin films, organic, hybrid solar cell, dye-sensitized, and nanotechnology) as well as the environmental impact of solar cells. Most of these papers highlighted cell technology and materials for different PV cells and some other papers highlighted the economic aspects and environmental impacts.

The literature shows that solar energy is a potential field and the policies are essential for the commercial establishment of the PV technologies. This paper presents a review of the technologies, prospects, progress, policies, and environmental impact as well as the cost benefit of PV solar power generation.

Section snippets

Cells and modules technology

PV cells generate electricity from the use of direct sunlight in PV systems. Multiple PV cells include a PV module and multiple PV modules are connected in series or in parallel in a PV array system. PV cells have a light absorption property that absorbs photon and produces free electrons through its PV effect. The PV effect converts sunlight to electricity with solar cells. Sunlight is plentiful and is the actual energy that is attracted by PV cells and causes some electrons to gain high

Characteristics and application areas of solar cells

The applications for solar cells depend on characteristics of individual cells in addition to the environmental conditions. The PV industry started with silicon cells and they still dominate the cell technology market with an efficiency rate of 24.7%. Mono-crystalline and multi-crystalline Si cells with bulk-type shape are used as first-generation cells. Second-generation solar cells are amorphous and are low cost but also have a low efficiency rate. Poly-crystal thin-film cells, II–VI, and

Photovoltaic power generation

PV systems are combinations of many elements such as cells, mechanical, and electrical mountings, among others, where electric power is generated from sunlight irradiation [16]. PV power generation systems are built around a number of solar cells, batteries, inverters, chargers, discharge controllers, solar tracking control systems, and other equipments [41]. Fig. 4 shows a schematic representation of solar PV power generation systems. Some important equipments and their functions are as

Economic analysis

One of the greatest challenges of the PV based energy is its cost effectiveness. For economic analysis, researchers studied the following variables: Net Present Value (NPV), Payback Period (PBP), and the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) [1], [18], [43], [44], [45], [46], [47]. The project is profitable when the NPV is positive. Let T be the life span of the project, CF the net cash flow of the investment project in the n year, and r the discount rate. NPV presents the summation of total net cash

Potential analysis

Solar energy attracts more attention when compared to other renewable energy sources. Solar energy is abundant, free, and environmental friendly. PV systems offer promising sources of renewable power generation and zero CO2 emissions. Fig. 10, Fig. 11 show worldwide historical development and increase in cumulative installation. We found that Europe has the most PV installations of any other region in the world. Global PV installation in 2011 and 2012 was 30,191 MW and 31,095 MW, respectively.

The photovoltaic electricity industry and its future

The PV industry is a rapidly developing industry. The development began in 1954 when American Bell Laboratories developed the first silicon solar cell. World PV industry analysts have shown that significant growth has occurred over the last couple of years [59]. Worldwide total PV installations represented 1.8 GW in 2000 and 71.1 GW in 2011 with a growth rate of 44%. Up to 2012, global cumulative PV installations have reached about 106 GW [52]. At present, public research programs for renewable

Environmental analysis

Traditional fossil fuel based power generation systems have created serious environmental problems (i.e. climate change, air pollution, acid rain, and global warming, among others) which are harmful to human life. PV energy is clean, silent, abundant, sustainable, and renewable as well as inherently safer than any other traditional electricity generation systems. Renewable energy systems can solve many environmental problems that were created by traditional fossil fuels [68], [69].

Renewable energy policy

Most countries have implemented a variety of policies and have provided financial support to increase the use of renewable energy in power generation systems. Most countries have used Feed-in-Tariff and quota systems as their policies. A bidding system for renewable energy development activities is often used. Incentives and subsidies are helpful and increase the usage of renewable energy systems. Net metering systems have been introduced for small-scale renewable energy systems [68]. All

Conclusion

Solar energy is a potential clean renewable energy source and PV has the most potential for solar power systems in homes and for industrial power generation. Solar power generation demand increases worldwide as countries strive to reach goals for emission reduction and renewable power generations. Malaysia has a target of 40% less emissions by 2020. Malaysia׳s SEDA has developed many strategies to increase the country׳s usage of solar energy as the primary source of energy by 2050.

The following

Acknowledgment

The authors acknowledge the financial support of the High Impact Research Grant (HIRG) scheme (Project No. UM.C/HIR/MOHE/H-16001-00-D000032: Campus Network Smart-Grid System for Energy Security) to carry out for this research.

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