Three-dimensional ion micro-tomography
Introduction
The motivation for this work was to devise a technique that generates a three-dimensional distribution map of the mass density and elemental composition of micro-samples. These data can then be analysed and visualised with appropriate computer software. The mass density data are obtained with scanning transmission ion microscopy (STIM) experiments and the elemental concentration data are obtained with particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) experiments. However, such experiments only provide “depth-averaged” quantitative data. To resolve depth information, the technique of computer-assisted tomography (CAT) is used to extend the STIM and PIXE techniques. This involves collecting multiple two-dimensional STIM and PIXE scans (projections) at different angles around the sample.
For the IMT experiment to be practical and the reconstructed data to be accurate, two main attributes must be optimised. The first attribute is the data acquisition time, which must be minimised. This is achieved by using a newly designed data acquisition system (DAS) [1] that can accurately collect data at very large acquisition rates. The second attribute is an accurate three-dimensional representation of the sample, to be generated by using an appropriate reconstruction algorithm. This is achieved with the the discrete image space reconstruction algorithm (DISRA) [2], [3] that was developed to compensate for the many non-linear processes that occur during STIM and PIXE experiments.
Many techniques have been developed in an attempt to compensate for the non-linear processes that occur during STIM and PIXE experiments [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15]. The main improvement over these other techniques is the ability to compensate for the effects of X-ray attenuation for a geometry in which the X-ray detector subtends a very large three-dimensional cone with the sample, as shown in Fig. 1. The purpose for such a geometry is to allow the acquisition rate of X-ray data to be sustained as the spatial resolution of the PIXE data is reduced to be comparable with the spatial resolution of the STIM data.
To demonstrate this, an experiment was done on a characterised “standard” sample. The X-ray detector was placed 12 mm from the sample at a scattering angle of 90°. With an area of , the geometric efficiency was 0.018. At this position, the spatial resolution of the PIXE data was and was acquired at an average rate of 5.6k counts per second. This is compared to the spatial resolution of for the STIM data, which was acquired at an average rate of 9.9k counts per second.
Section snippets
Automation of experiment
There are many features required by a DAS to optimise the quality and throughput of collecting data for a tomography experiment.
The features of the STIM experiment are: data rates above 40k events per second, a beam blanking signal, data triggering for the scan dwell, a raster scan and a signal to block the ion beam when data are not being collected.
The high data rate allows for reduced experiment times by increasing the current of the STIM beam. A beam blanking signal deflects the beam off the
Reconstruction technique
The technique used to reconstruct STIM and PIXE tomography data is the DISRA [2], [3]. DISRA is our extension of the image space reconstruction algorithm (ISRA) [16]. The main feature of DISRA is that the density of inhomogeneous samples can be reconstructed from experiments in which complex physical phenomena occur when a probe interacts with the sample. This is accomplished whilst also retaining accurate density information at every voxel.
Fig. 2 shows a diagram of the steps required for the
Test using a “standard” sample
A test sample was made by selecting some powder chemicals and cutting one “ladder” from a 2000 mesh copper grid. These were embedded in Araldite. The powder chemicals are lead fluoride (PbF2), vanadium (V) oxide (V2O5), copper (II) oxide (CuO), lead (II) chloride (PbCl2) and potassium chloride (KCl). There are a few reasons why these chemicals were chosen. The X-ray peaks do not overlap so they are easy to identify and their yield can be accurately measured. Also, a few aspects of the
Conclusion
The experimental setup for IMT has been optimised to collect accurate STIM and PIXE data with large data acquisition rates. Even though these experiments still take several hours to complete, the total automation of these experiments does help alleviate the physical and mental burden of the user.
The three-dimensional distributions of the mass density and elemental concentration of micro-samples can be determined accurately. However, the inability of PIXE to detect low-Z elements has a
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