Feeding the Palm: A Review of Oil Palm Nutrition

doi:10.1016/bs.agron.2018.07.001

Advances in Agronomy

Volume 152, 2018, Pages 149-243

https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2018.07.001 Get rights and content

Abstract

After more than a century of cultivation and more than 80 years since the first field experiments on fertilizer use, there seems to be sufficient knowledge of oil palm mineral nutrition to support a productive and profitable industry. Still, changing conditions, especially in view of the allotment of new cultivation areas, newly developed genetic material, social and technological developments and consequential management changes, climatic changes, and so on, we summarize here the accessible information on mineral nutrition in mature Tenera oil palm generated over the past 50 years. We attempt to provide information that is both scientifically sound and practically relevant in order to bridge the gap between fundamental research and plantation management. Our scope covers an overview of oil palm development and adverse conditions, with a specific focus on plant nutrition. We shed light on the current understanding of yield potential and the origin of yield gaps and discuss the role nutrition plays in improved oil palm performance, including current systems to assess appropriate nutritional status. This leads to surveying information on nutrient deficiency effects and to an analysis of the applicability of and existing knowledge gaps in the 4R nutrient stewardship concept. We end with a comprehensive analysis regarding knowledge gaps and research opportunities and give a brief outlook into potential future research pathways.

Section snippets

About This Review

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is a tropical tree crop, which is mainly grown for the industrial production of vegetable oil. Although in use for millennia in local economies and highly regarded as machine grease during the British Industrial Revolution, the plant and the oil extracted have been intensively produced only since the middle of the 20th century. Its unrivaled oil production rate has fueled its aggressive adoption around the small tropical belt that provides suitable conditions for it

Macro-Economic Context

Oil palm is now the most important supplier of plant-based oil in the world. While it occupies only about 5.5% of agricultural land planted with oil crops, it accounts for 32% of global supply of oils and fats (c. 53.67 million tons), more than any other crop (Palmoilresearch, 2014).

During the past 25 years, the world production of oils and fats has increased by more than 150%, most of which was accounted for by palm oil. Between 2012 and 2017, the average annual world consumption growth of oils

Soil Nutrient Inputs, Stocks, and Dynamics

The supply of nutrients to plants from soils comes from soil mineral and organic nutrient stocks, rainfall, organic matter from vegetation, and from agronomic inputs, such as fertilizers and crop residues. Soil mineral nutrients come from the weathering of the parent material by physical, microbial, and geochemical processes as well as mineralization from organic matter, providing a supply of nutrients, although often the rate of this process is very slow and unable to match the demand of

4R Nutrient Stewardship Concept

BMPs are built on a collection of other concepts that have been proven effective in addressing concerns to ensure oil palm economic and environmental sustainability. The 4R Nutrient Stewardship concept is an approach to maximize plant nutrient efficiency in order to increase production, profitability, environmental protection, and sustainability and a central part of BMPs. The basic idea is not new and was described in the 1970s (Foster and Goh, 1975) through observing that the efficiency of

Knowledge Gaps and Research Opportunities

Given the relatively short time that oil palm has been intensively cultivated to produce high yields, it is not surprising that many open questions and uncertainties remain. While the past 50 or so years have produced some important nutrient management strategies, there are still significant knowledge gaps.

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Effects of fertilization practices and understory on soil health and oil palm performances in smallholdings: An Indonesian case study
2024, Agricultural Systems
Smallholders play a considerable role in oil palm production in Indonesia. Their specific constraints lead to contrasted plot management, especially for fertilization and understory vegetation. Studies disentangling the agro-environmental impacts of oil palm smallholders' management practices at the plot scale remain scarce. The extent to which smallholders' practices affect both agronomic and environmental performances is still to be investigated with robust in-field studies to provide improvement tracks.
This study aimed at investigating the effects of both fertilization and understory vegetation management on soil health and oil palm performances. It explored a gradient of management practices, within homogeneous soil and climate conditions and historical development. The objective was to isolate and decipher the specific effects of some key practices on the overall plantation performances.
We surveyed 16 ex-plasma oil palm smallholders' 25-year old plots, gathering detailed information on management and implementing field measurements (48 points). For soil health assessment, we applied Biofunctool® that consists of nine in-site indicators informing on the soil ability to transform carbon, recycle nutrient and maintain its structure. For the oil palm performances, we relied on conventional appraisal parameters, such as yields, leaf area and nutrient leaf analyses.
Our results highlighted that fertilization, especially potassium, played a significant role in sustaining oil palm performances. Understory vegetation had a direct and positive effect on soil structure maintenance indicators. Soil structure improvement was correlated with enhanced oil palm performances. Those results highlighted that, besides nutritional aspects, increasing plot biodiversity through understory vegetation maintenance was associated with enhanced soil health hence potential greater ecosystem functions.
The findings have implications in terms of better understanding the effects of combined farming practices on the soil-oil palm continuum. It especially highlighted the key role of understory vegetation to improve soil structure maintenance without competing with oil palms in the studied context.
Too little, too imbalanced: Nutrient supply in smallholder oil palm fields in Indonesia
2023, Agricultural Systems
Smallholders account for ca. 40% of oil palm area in Indonesia but average yield remains low. Despite higher overall fertilizer use in Indonesia compared with other Southeast Asian countries, poor plant nutrition has been identified as a major factor explaining yield gaps in smallholder oil palm fields and little is known about the underlying management drivers.
To assess nutrient management in smallholder fields and identify entry points to narrow the existing yield gap via improved plant nutrition.
We assessed nutrient balances and gaps for nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K), and magnesium (Mg) and inter-relationships between fertilizer use, leaf nutrient concentration, and yield, using data collected from 977 smallholder fields in Indonesia over two years.
There was a positive relationship between yield and nutrient rates, especially for potassium (K). Only half of the fields received fertilizer and average nutrient rates in fertilized fields represented 45% (N), 83% (P), 28% (K), and 25% (Mg) of the associated removal with harvested yield. Applied fertilizer was generally rich in N and P, but poor in K and Mg, leading to nutrient imbalances. Additionally, farmers did not follow appropriate practices on fertilizer placement and splits. Improving current fertilizer supply and management is needed to increase smallholder yields and profit.
Current agricultural and research programs will benefit from re-orienting efforts to improve nutrient management in oil palm as a pathway to narrow yield gaps in smallholder fields, which, in turn, requires strengthening extension services to fill in knowledge gaps and tune subsidy programs to facilitate farmer access to fertilizer sources more suited to the crop.
Revisiting foliar diagnosis for oil palm potassium nutrition
2023, European Journal of Agronomy
Citation Excerpt :
As expected, K fertilisation had a generally positive effect on K content (%K) in all aboveground organs (Figs. 1 and S4–6). The well-known intra-tree K distribution (Tan, 1976; Hartley, 1988; Henson, 1999; Fairhust, 1996) which revealed a visible difference in %K between autotrophic (≈ 1 %) and heterotrophic organs (2–3 %; with a maximum of about 8 % in bunch rachis), has also been recently reported (Lamade et al., 2014; Tiemann et al., 2018). Some measurements made in the roots of trees in the same trial suggest K in roots was also impacted by K fertilisation (%K increased from 0.6 % to 0.8 % from K0 to K3) (Cui et al., 2019, with a study on saplings; Lamade, unpublished data on mature palms).
Oil palm is a highly potassium (K)-demanding tree requiring fertilisation throughout its life cycle. One of the most common indices to monitor K fertilisation is K content (in % of DW, further noted as %K) in leaflets, typically used in foliar diagnosis (FD). However, uncertainty remains as to whether leaflets are always the most K-responsive organs and furthermore, implementing FD may require separate response curves for different soil and climatic conditions, and newly also i.e. genetic materials (progenies). As such, a universal K indicator ideally responsive to K availability and valid across many progenies could simplify FD. We investigated K responses of oil palm trees in four different progenies grown in North Sumatra, from planting to the maturation stage. Elemental analyses were performed along with biometrical measurements at tree scale, completed by data from agronomic databases. Uni- and multi-variate analyses were performed to identify the best indicators of K response. Tree K balance (difference between K availability and K needs) was computed to determine directly if (i) K supply met tree K demand and (ii) %K in leaflets, rachis or trunk were linked to the K budget. We also interrogate the accuracy of %K expression for K leaf content estimation and answer to it. Standard effects of K availability on height, leaf area, and yield were observed and varied mostly with the progeny. K balance calculations showed a systematic K imbalance when bunch production started, suggesting a non-negligible contribution of exchangeable soil K. %K in leaflets, rachis and trunk does not appear to be correlated with K balance. Our work brings out the important result that unlike %K in leaflets, phosphorus (P) and %K in rachis (more precisely %K + 3 %P) appeared to be tightly correlated with yield (FFB: fresh fruit bunches) two years later, suggesting a possible interdependence between fruits sink force and K-P elemental content in leaves. Since this indicator is under important genetic effect, we propose to use the combination of mineral contents generated by multivariate analysis, which successfully predicts FFB after two years, independently of the progeny.
Navigating climate challenges: Unraveling the effects of climate change on oil palm cultivation and adaptation strategies
2023, Advances in Food Security and Sustainability
Climate change has substantial effects on oil palm cultivation, such as changing soil moisture, more extreme weather events, altered monsoons, and heat stress, posing significant challenges to the industry’s sustainability and productivity. The objective of this study is to examine the challenges posed by climate change on oil palm cultivation and its associated impacts, and to propose effective adaptation strategies to mitigate and address the adverse effects on oil palm cultivation. The findings indicate that soil moisture fluctuations have a substantial impact on both the yield and quality of oil palm fruit, underscoring the significance of effective soil moisture management. Altered monsoon patterns, characterized by irregular rainfall and extreme weather events, have detrimental effects on oil palm growth and productivity, necessitating the implementation of adaptation strategies. Heat stress further exacerbates the situation, as it diminishes photosynthesis, increases respiration rates, and induces water stress and premature aging in oil palm trees. Additionally, extreme weather events such as typhoons, hurricanes, and floods can inflict physical damage on oil palm plantations, leading to decreased yields and heightened production costs. To optimize oil palm growth and mitigate climate change impacts, implement agronomic adaptation strategies such as adjusting planting density, fertilizer application, irrigation, pruning, and pest and disease management. Invest in genetic adaptation by developing drought-tolerant, disease-resistant, and pest-resistant oil palm varieties. Promote land-use adaptation practices like crop rotation, intercropping, and agroforestry systems. Strengthen monitoring and early warning systems for extreme weather events. Encourage research and innovation for sustainable and climate-resilient practices, considering environmental and socio-economic implications.
Establishing optimal nutrient norms in leaf and soil for oil palm in India
2021, Industrial Crops and Products
Citation Excerpt :
The fresh bio mass of total palm at the age of 25 years is estimated at 1.5–2 MT out of which trunk contributes 70% (ICAR-IIOPR, 2017). It is one of the highest producers of dry matter among C3 plants and so requires larger quantities of nutrients (Tiemann et al., 2018). This is a monoecious palm with male and female inflorescences on the same tree.
Diagnosis and recommendation integrated system (DRIS)-based critical and optimum leaf nutrient standards for oil palm (OP) (Elaeis guineensis Jacq) have been estimated for some locations of India to find out the most critical nutrients. However, a well-established boundary line approach has not been evaluated for defining optimal ranges of leaf nutrients. Further, no defined standards are available for soil available nutrients in oil palm growing regions of India. Nutrient management in oil palm gains paramount importance due to its huge requirement as well as its spectacular influence on fresh fruit bunch (FFB) and oil yields. Therefore, apt norms need to be established for better productivity through precise nutrient management. With this objective, optimum concentrations for the most important leaf nutrients, their sufficiency ranges, nutrient ratios and their optimal ranges have been determined by employing boundary line approach and the results have been compared with that of DRIS approach based on average values of high yielding populations. Similarly, optimal soil available nutrient status in terms of optimal concentrations and their sufficiency ranges also have been standardized for oil palm and compared with DRIS method. For Krishna – Godavari basin area of Andhra Pradesh in India, the optimal concentrations of nutrients in oil palm leaves were established as 2.64, 0.16, 0.78, 1.3, 0.52, 0.16% for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg) and sulphur (S). For boron (B) the optimal concentration is 69.8 mg kg⁻¹ through BLA approach. For the same area, the optimal values of soil available nutrients were 452, 144, 388 kg of N, P₂O₅ and K₂O per ha, 1.96 and 1.7 meq 100 g⁻¹ of Ca and Mg respectively, and 68 mg kg⁻¹ for SO₄-S and 8.4 ppm for B. The optimal pH level was 6.6. A variation of up to 10% was recorded between DRIS and boundary line approach and for better management optimal nutrient standards need to be established for each agro-eco region.
Formulation of biofertilizers from oil palm empty fruit bunches and plant growth-promoting microbes: A comprehensive and novel approach towards plant health
2021, Journal of King Saud University - Science
Citation Excerpt :
Malaysia has ideal climatic conditions for oil palm crop cultivation which fostered a rapid expansion of the oil palm industry (Begum et al., 2019: Tiemann et al., 2018). Taking a look at the most productive parts of Malaysia, it is clear that, the oil palm crop requires a relative humidity of at least 85%, an average of 5 h of sunlight each day, and at least 2000 mm annual rainfall spread uniformly throughout the year with little or no dry season in order to achieve optimal growth and production (Tiemann et al., 2018). In addition, steady average temperatures between 24C and 28C appear to have optimal conditions, with seasonal fluctuations of less than 6C.
Our heavy reliance on chemical fertilizers for agricultural practices has fostered the development of a vast industry that is producing chemicals that are toxic not only for humans but also for the environment. Biofertilizers are microbial formulations containing native plant growth-promoting microorganisms (PGPM) which have the potential to enhance plant growth either directly or indirectly by producing different types of phytohormones, iron-binding metabolites (siderophores), and solubilizing soil nutrients and minerals. The positive impacts on crop growth and development were documented by many researchers while using biofertilizers. Thus, biofertilizers offer enormous promise for sustainable agriculture, particularly in the face of climate change. Despite the growing interest in this technology, its entire potential remains untapped. This review collectively describes the potential use of empty fruit bunches (EFB) biomass as a biofertilizer for sustainable agricultural practices and the roles of plant growth-promoting microbes (PGPM) in plant growth and development. Attempts were also made to give insights into the oil palm industry in Malaysia and the nutrient profile of EFB biomass. We concluded that more research, fund and development activities are needed to improve traits of beneficial microbes that will potentially enhance the biological pathway of different biocompounds production and find solutions for the current issues related to converting EFB biomass into biofertilizers.

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Chapter Four - Feeding the Palm: A Review of Oil Palm Nutrition

Abstract

Section snippets

About This Review

Macro-Economic Context

Soil Nutrient Inputs, Stocks, and Dynamics

4R Nutrient Stewardship Concept

Knowledge Gaps and Research Opportunities

Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment

Sci. Total Environ.

Forest Policy Econ.

Comput. Electron. Agric.

Agric. Sys.

Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.

Environ. Sci. Policy

Econ. Modell.

Manejo integrado de la nutrición de la palma de aceite: experiencias en América tropical

Revista Palmas

Environmental regulation of sex determination in oil palm: current knowledge and insights from other species

Ann. Bot.

Riesgos de toxicidad con boro en viveros de palma de aceite

Palmas

Elaeis guineensis nutritional lacking identification based on statistical analysis and artificial neural network

Recent Adv. Sys. Sci. Math. Modell.

Green technology on oil palm biomass

Asia Palm Oil Mag.

Effect of oil palm bunch refuse ash on soil and plant nutrient composition and yield of maize

Am. Euras. J. Sustain. Agric.

Oil and kernel yields of oil palm in relation to planting densities, materials and fertilizer rates

Reducing runoff loss of applied nutrients in oil palm cultivation using controlled-release fertilizers

Adv. Agric.

Co-composting of empty bunches and partially treated palm oil mill effluents in pilot scale

Int. J. Agric. Res.

The use of DRIS for nutritional diagnosis in oil palm in the state of pará

Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo

Diagnosis and recommendation integrated system (DRIS)

Soil Sci. Bull.

Soil nutrient status and leaf nutrient norms in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) plantations grown on southern plateau of India

Soil nutrient status and leaf nutrient norms in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) plantations grown in the west coastal area of India

Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal.

Soil health management in oil palm

P.T.P.P. London Sumatra Indonesia Tbk Pusat Penelitian Bah Lias - Bah Lias Research Station

Diagnosis of Mineral Disorders in Plants

Anatomical study and cytological demonstrationof potassium and chlorine flux associated with oil palm and coconut stomatalopening

Oléagineux

Apercu des influences climatiques sur les cycles deproduction du palmier à huile

Oléagineux

The search for yield in oil palm: basic principles

The determination of bunch yield components in the development of inflorescences in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis)

Exp. Agric.

An oil palm fertilizer experiment on volcanic soils in Papua New Guinea

Oléagineux

Growth; flowering and yield of the oil palm in Nigeria

J. West African Inst. Oil Palm Res.

A preliminary list of oil palm disease encountered in Nigeria

J. West African Inst. Oil Palm Res.

Studies on the deficiency diseases of the oil palm. 2. Macronutrient deficiency symptoms in oil palm seedlings grown in sand culture

J. West African Inst. Oil Palm Res.

Reductions in emissions from deforestation from Indonesia’s moratorium on new oil palm, timber, and logging concessions

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

The role of potassium in alleviating detrimental effects of abiotic stresses in plants

J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci.

Partitioning of shoot and root dry matter and carbohydrates in bean plants suffering from phosphorus, potassium and magnesium deficiency

J. Exper. Bot.

Effect of drought and haze on the performance of oil palm

Oil palm mineral nutrition

Plant. Réch. Dév.

Study of a sulphur deficiency on young oil palms in Ivory Coast

Oléagineux

The water relations and irrigation requirements of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis): a review

Exp. Agric.

Potassium requirement of oil palm in Malaysia: fifty years of experimental results

Nitrogen requirements of oil palms in Malaysia: fifty years of experiments conducted by Guthries

Phosphorus requirement of oil palm in Malaysia: fifty years of experimental results

Magnesium requirement of oil palms in Malaysia: 45 years of experimental results

Use of oil palm waste material for increased production

Fertiliser efficiency studies with interactions in oil palm

Fertilizer efficiency studies in Malaysia

Fertilizer efficiency studies in oil palm

Advances in fertiliser mgt in OP industry