Combined untargeted and targeted fingerprinting with comprehensive two-dimensional chromatography for volatiles and ripening indicators in olive oil
Graphical abstract
Introduction
Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) is the most effective multidimensional separation technique for in-depth investigations of complex samples of volatiles in food [1]. The combination, in a single analytical platform, of two separation dimensions with mass spectrometric detection and, when possible, automated sample preparation, delivers highly efficient sample profiling (detailed analysis of single molecular entities) and fingerprinting (rapid, high-throughput screening of samples for distinctive analytical signatures) [2].
Each analytical run produces dense, multi-dimensional data, so elaboration and interpretation of chemical information is a challenging task. In addition, food samples generally have a high-degree of chemical multidimensionality [3] thus creating highly complex analytical challenges. In this context, data elaboration strategies should implement smart and productive processes, preferably with a high degree of automation, to make cross-samples analysis efficient and informative.
Within the existing methodologies for GC × GC data elaboration [4], [5], the approach based on peak-region features has been very effective because of its comprehensive and uniform treatment of information from each sample constituent, both knowns and unknowns. Each single chemical entity is characterized by its chromatographic and spectrometric parameters (retention time in both dimensions, detector response, and mass spectral information) and by its absolute and relative position within the pattern of all detectable constituents. As a consequence, the 2D peak-retention pattern of a sample is a diagnostic fingerprint, informative of its composition; and pattern recognition approaches can be successfully applied to improve effectiveness and productivity in multi-sample data elaboration.
Although these concepts are not new for the GC × GC community [6], the full automation of these procedures and their implementation in commercial software packages has been achieved only recently. This has limited both routine adoption of the technique for food analysis and investigative strategies for profiling [2], [7].
Analysis of olive oil volatiles is a challenging and important problem and GC × GC can yield deeper knowledge of the composition of this fraction offering new perspectives for quality and authenticity assessment [8].
In spite of the great potential of GC × GC, few studies are available in this field. Vaz Freire et al. [9]first proposed an image-features approach, or more generally a pattern recognition methodology, to investigate the characteristic distribution of volatiles from oils. They adopted open-source image analysis software (Image J, National Institutes of Health) to extract information from small 2D regions located over the separation space and, by Principal Component Analysis (PCA), selected those regions with the highest discrimination potential. Then, they used targeted profiling to locate known analytes within informative 2D regions.
In 2010, Cajka and co-workers [10] exploited the targeted profiling potential of GC × GC-ToF-MS and identified 44 analytes able to discriminate samples of different geographical origin and production year. More recently, Purcaro et al. [8] combined targeted and untargeted analysis with the goal of a chemical blueprint of olive oil aroma defects. This inter-laboratory study confirmed the reliability of GC × GC for detailed profiling of olive oil volatile fractions and introduced an iterative strategy [11], [12] to locate sensory-relevant analytes efficiently.
This study exploits the most recent advances of GC × GC-MS chromatographic fingerprinting to study VOC distributions from Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO) samples of a single botanical origin (Picual), cultivated in well-defined plots in a single region (Granada, Spain), and harvested at different maturation stages. The principal interest in this application is the quality characteristics related to optimal ripening of olive fruits [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21] and, as a consequence, olive oil classification and perceivable sensory quality [22], [23]. In particular, this study proposes an integrated work-flow, fully supported by dedicated software tools, that performs cross-samples comparisons by contemporarily considering characteristic distributions (i.e., sample fingerprints) of both known and unknown compounds. This work-flow integrates both untargeted and targeted (UT) fingerprinting to realize the most comprehensive results, and so is termed UT fingerprinting. Challenges of retrospective analysis and immediacy of image fingerprinting also are discussed because of the advantages they offer in specific investigations.
Section snippets
Reference compounds and solvents
Pure reference standards of α-thujone, used as Internal Standard (ISTD), at a concentration of 100 mg/L in dibuthyl phthalate, and n-alkanes (n-C9 to n-C25), used for linear retention index (ITS) determination, at a concentration of 100 mg/L in cyclohexane, were supplied by Sigma-Aldrich (Milan, Italy).
Solvents for n-alkanes dilution (toluene and cyclohexane HPLC-grade) and dibuthyl phthalate also were from Sigma-Aldrich.
Olive oil samples
Olive oil samples of Picual variety, harvested in 2014, were supplied by
Results and discussion
The goal of this study was to evaluate the potential of combining Untargeted and Targeted 2D data elaboration approaches based on untargeted peak-region features, target peaks, and visual features to approach to the most inclusive fingerprinting within EVOO volatiles: the UT fingerprinting strategy. Based on a sampling design focused on a single botanical variety and well-defined geographical locations, VOCs fingerprints were interpreted as a function of ripening stage and oil quality.
This
Conclusions
This study evidences and emphasizes the potentials of fingerprinting based on GC × GC-MS separations and highlights the synergism between untargeted and targeted methodologies to investigate complex fractions of volatiles in depth. Their combination enables to achieve the most inclusive/comprehensive fingerprinting (UT fingerprinting) and if compared to previous studies, the degree of automation implemented in the data elaboration work-flow is promising. Experimental results on EVOO volatiles
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to “GDR Altiplano de Granada” (Spain) for olives samples.
The research was carried out thanks to the support “International mobility program for young researchers (PhD)” by University of Granada and CEI BioTic Granada.
Note: S. E. Reichenbach has a financial interest in GC Image, LLC.
References (48)
- et al.
Potential of comprehensive chromatography in food analysis
TrAC Trends Anal. Chem.
(2013) - et al.
Interpretation of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography data using advanced chemometrics
TrAC Trends Anal. Chem.
(2014) - et al.
Features for non-targeted cross-sample analysis with comprehensive two-dimensional chromatography
J. Chromatogr. A
(2012) - et al.
Smart templates for peak pattern matching with comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatography
J. Chromatogr. A
(2009) - et al.
Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography for fingerprint pattern recognition in olive oils produced by two different techniques in portuguese olive varieties galega vulgar, cobrançosa e carrasquenha
Anal. Chim. Acta
(2009) - et al.
Traceability of olive oil based on volatiles pattern and multivariate analysis
Food Chem.
(2010) - et al.
Profiling food volatiles by comprehensive two-dimensional ga schromatography coupled with mass spectrometry: advanced fingerprinting approaches for comparative analysis of the volatile fraction of roasted hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.) from different origins
J. Chromatogr. A
(2010) - et al.
Chemometric characterization of three varietal olive oils (Cvs. Cobrançosa, Madural and Verdeal Transmontana) extracted from olives with different maturation indices
Food Chem.
(2007) - et al.
Olive oil volatile compounds, flavour development and quality: a critical review
Food. Chem.
(2007) - et al.
PDO virgin olive oil quality-minor components and organoleptic evaluation
Food Res. Int.
(2010)
Urinary metabolic fingerprinting of mice with diet-induced metabolic derangements by parallel dual secondary column-dual detection two-dimensional comprehensive gas chromatography
J. Chromatogr. A
Informatics for cross-sample analysis with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography and high-resolution mass spectrometry (GCxGC-HRMS)
Talanta
Comparative visualization for comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography
J. Chromatogr. A
Validation of SPME-GCMS method for the analysis of virgin olive oils volatiles responsible for sensory defects
Talanta
Characterisation of 39 varietal virgin olive oils by their volatile composition
Food Chem.
Comparative study of virgin olive oil sensory defects
Food Chem.
Combined effects of reduced malaxation oxygen levels and storage time on extra-virgin olive oil volatiles investigated by a novel chemometric approach
Food Chem.
Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography and food sensory properties: potential and challenges
Anal. Bioanal. Chem.
Sample dimensionality: a predictor of order-disorder in component peak distribution in multidimensional separation
J. Chromatogr. A
Impact of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with mass spectrometry on food analysis
J. Sep. Sci.
Toward a definition of blueprint of virgin olive oil by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography
J. Chromatogr. A
Targeted and non-targeted approaches for complex natural sample profiling by GC×GC -qMS
J. Chromatogr. Sci.
Influence of the fruit's ripeness on virgin olive oil quality
J. Oleo Sci.
Changes in phenolic compounds and rancimat stability of olive oils from varieties of olives at stages of ripeness
J. Sci. Food Agric.
Cited by (0)
- 1
Federico Magagna and Lucia Valverde-Som, listed in alphabetical order, equally contributed to this work.