Eco-hydrological controls on microclimate and surface fuel evaporation in complex terrain
Introduction
The litter layer (otherwise known as fine surface fuel) is an important component of fire regimes in forests (Catchpole, 2002; Viegas et al., 1992; Wotton, 2009). This layer of dead biomass can comprise a large component of the overall fuel load, and its amount and moisture status can determine fire ignition probabilities and fire behaviour (Duff et al., 2013; Gould et al., 2011; McArthur, 1967). Furthermore, this fuel source can often be managed effectively with prescribed burning (Birk and Bridges, 1989), so there has been much effort in developing tools for predicting its accumulation rates and moisture dynamics. After fire, the accumulation of fine fuel is a function of litter input from live biomass and decomposition, both varying with climate but typically following a negative exponential accumulation curve (Olson, 1963; Ossola and Nyman, 2017; Raison et al., 1983; Thomas et al., 2014). In temperate eucalypt forests of Australia, the accumulation of surface fuel after fire approaches an asymptote at about 5–10 years after burning, stabilising at loads in the range of 10–20 t ha−1 (Duff et al., 2013; Gould et al., 2011; Thomas et al., 2014), with values a function of system productivity.
The availability of surface fuels to burning depends on their moisture content (Plucinski and Anderson, 2008; Possell and Bell, 2013), which is determined by the hydrological properties of the litter, precipitation and the microclimate above and within the litter layer (Matthews, 2006). In wet conditions when gravimetric water content of litter () is above the fibre saturation point (> ∼ 0.35 kg kg−1), the temporal changes in moisture content are caused by drainage and evaporation of free water. In dry conditions when < ∼ 0.35 kg kg−1 the temporal changes in moisture content is caused by desorption and absorption of moisture as the litter approaches some equilibrium moisture content (EMC) with the surrounding atmosphere. The bulk of research on moisture contents of surface fuels has focused on representing changes in moisture of dry fuels when the assumptions underlying EMC models are applicable (Catchpole et al., 2001; Matthews et al., 2010; Resco de Dios et al., 2015; Sharples and McRae, 2011; Slijepcevic et al., 2013). Resolving variation in moisture contents in this low range of is important for predicting fire behaviour and ignition probabilities in a dry and flammable landscape when fuels are within the ignitable range.
However, in landscapes with complex topography and variable vegetation, the range of at any particular point in time may be very large, resulting in fine surface fuels that are in different stages of drying depending on the attributes of the specific location (Cawson et al., 2017; Gibos, 2010; Nyman et al., 2015; Slijepcevic et al. (in press)). A wide range of can therefore co-exist in the landscape over relatively small spatial scales. For instance, in a study of topographic effects on litter moisture Nyman et al. (2015) found that the difference in moisture content as a result of slope orientation (aspect and slope gradient) meant that ∼50% of the time during summer the assumptions associated with EMC models would apply to the equatorial-facing slope but not the polar-facing slope, limiting the predictive capacity of these models to only a fraction of the landscape. More shaded conditions on the polar-facing slopes meant that the dominant hydrological process controlling flammability of the litter was related to evaporation of free water and not desorption/adsorption processes associated with changes in dry fuel beds. In landscapes where a wide range of moisture contents co-exit, the rate at which water evaporates from fuels in wet and shaded parts of the landscape (when > 0.35 kg kg−1) may be more important for ignition and fire spread across the landscape than the exchange of moisture within fuels that are already dry ( < 0.35 kg kg−1). High moisture contents in wet and shaded parts of the landscape promote patchiness in flammable surface fuel, thus reducing the likelihood of ignition sources (e.g. lightning) translating to active fire, and limiting fire spread in the event of a fire having started in a dry patch (Sharples, 2009). These factors related to spatial variation in , patchiness and connectivity of fuels are particularly important during benign fire weather (e.g planned burning) when fire behaviour and burn outcomes are most sensitive to flammability differentials (Bradstock, 2010; Bradstock et al., 2010; McCaw, 2013; McRae et al., 1979).
Existing process-based models for predicting take into account the full spectrum of hydrological processes underlying moisture dynamics in fuels in both wet and dry conditions (Matthews, 2006; Nelson Jr., 2000). However, the capacity to implement these models at the landscape scale is limited because we currently lack sufficient insight into the interactive effects of topography, climate and vegetation on the driving variables that control fuel moisture at the forest floor. Variation in vegetation structure with slope orientation and drainage position can be large (Gutiérrez-Jurado and Vivoni, 2013; Kirpatrick and Nunez, 1980; Nyman et al., 2015; Zhou et al., 2013), which in turn affects the local energy and water budget. And variation in vegetation structure with topography depends on climate. For instance, in a location with very high precipitation where is water not limiting, the vegetation structure is less dependent on aspect and drainage position than in a location where water is limiting. So changes in vegetation structure and the partitioning of energy into transpiration and evaporation across topographically complex landscape are sensitive to the amount of water that is available for plants to growth (Huxman et al., 2005).
Most of the recent efforts to measure and model the effects of vegetation on below-canopy microclimate have been aimed at improving predictions of snowmelt, which is function of the same variables that drive evaporation from fuels (Hardy et al., 2004; Moeser et al., 2014; Musselman et al., 2012; Reid et al., 2014; Seyednasrollah and Kumar, 2014). These studies and those from the fire literature (Schiks et al., 2015; Thompson et al., 2015; Walsh et al., 2017) have shown that microclimate on the forest floor is highly sensitive to forest structure. However, there are few studies that quantify the impacts of vegetation on microclimate more broadly across a landscape with complex terrain where eco-hydrological feedbacks result in complex patterns of spatial variability in vegetation, and where microclimate is subject to combined effects of terrain and vegetation. The paucity of research in this area limits our capacity to understand and model how surface fuel in forested landscapes dry out and become available to burn. How do the interactive effects of vegetation and topography play out in terms in spatial patterns of fuel moisture, microclimate and forest floor evaporation? What are the implication of these effects for predicting fuel moisture variation across complex landscapes? These questions are particularly pertinent in water limited environments where small changes in radiation and rainfall has large implications for eco-hydrology and fire regimes (Boer et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2017a).
In this study we therefore aim to quantify the interactive effects of topographic position, aridity and vegetation cover on litter moisture, microclimate and potential evaporation above the forest floor. The work is set in context of fuel moisture dynamics and fire regimes but has application to hydrological processes and partitioning of evaporation and transpiration in these systems more generally. The aims are achieved by;
- 1
Monitoring litter moisture in different topographic positions across a rainfall gradient and examining the landscape-scale implications of the observed spatial variation.
- 2
Parameterising models of net radiation and potential evaporation below forest canopies in complex terrain using microclimate data from instrumented plots.
- 3
Using the models to identify major factors underlying variation in evaporation from the litter layer.
Section snippets
Overview
Data on microclimate and litter moisture were collected at 4 sites with different mean annual precipitation (MAP). At each of the 4 sites, experimental plots (20 × 20 m) were established in different positions with contrasting aspect and contributing drainage area. There are a total of 12 experimental plots. Data from these plots were used to i) quantify variation in litter moisture across the domain, and ii) parameterise a model of net radiation and potential evaporation () above the forest
Spatial-temporal patterns of litter moisture
Gravimetric moisture in the litter packs () was highly variable within and between sites during the summer and autumn drying periods (Fig. 4; Table 2, Table 3). In summer the on the last day of the drying period ranged from 0.11 to 1.36 kg kg−1 with Christmas Hills North and The Triangle South being the driest and wettest respectively (Fig. 4 a and c; Table 2). In autumn the ranged from 0.19 to 2.06 kg kg−1 with Christmas Hills North (The Triangle North) being the driest
Discussion
Moisture content () in the litter packs was highly variable at both local (0.1–1 km) and regional (1–10 s km) scales. At the regional scale there is a systematic increase in litter moisture content with increasing annual precipitation (MAP). However, this patterns is driven mainly by vegetation which increases in density with increased MAP. Increased vegetation density means less shortwave radiation reaching the litter layer. Temperature, which decreases at higher elevations, also tends
Conclusions
Mountainous landscapes are subject to large variations in eco-hydrological processes due to spatial variation in the availability of water and energy at the earth surface. The orientation of the terrain, as determined by aspect and slope, affects the amount of incoming radiation, while elevation affects temperature due to convection and adiabatic expansion. These terrain-related effects on air temperature and radiation interact with biota and precipitation regimes to produce complex patterns of
Acknowledgements
Research funding was provided by Natural Disaster Resilience Grants Scheme (NDRGS), Melbourne Water and the Victorian Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (DELWP). We are grateful for being able to collect field measurements on land managed by Melbourne Water and Parks Victoria. Wim Bovill, Daniel Metzen, Philip Noske and Mats Nyman helped with setting up the instrumented plots. We thank two anonymous reviewers who helped improve on a previous version of the manuscript.
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