Latent profile analysis of toddler parents’ perceptions of early care and education arrangements

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Highlights

  • Parents of toddlers align into two profiles based on their perceptions of child care arrangements.

  • Family characteristics are related to parent’s perceptions of child care.

  • Parents’ perceptions of child care significantly predict their child care choices.

Abstract

Given an increasing number of young children now attend non-parental early care and education (ECE) programs, more policy and research attention has been paid to understanding how parents make ECE decisions. Parents make child care decisions based on their perceptions of different ECE types. The reauthorization of CCDBG identified families with toddlers as a priority group that requires special attention from states. This study uses latent profile analysis to examine toddler parents’ perceptions of three types of non-parental child care: center-based child care; family child care; and family, friend, and neighbor care. Results suggest that toddlers’ parents are classified into two profiles: “favorable across all settings” and “less favorable towards non-parental care”. Racial-ethnic minority families and families speaking a language other than English are more likely to be in the “less favorable towards non-parental care” profile while parents in the “favorable across all settings” group tend to be single parents and receive financial support. Further, parents’ perceptions of child care are significantly related to their child care choices. Parents in the “favorable across all settings” group are more likely to use non-parental child care for their toddler. Findings reveal parents’ concerns about the quality and price of non-parental care and indicate the need to improve child care quality and provide child care financial support.

Introduction

In the United States, parents return to the workplace soon after having a child, which has resulted in an increased need for non-parental child care for toddlers (1- to 2-years old). National data suggest that 54% of children between 1 and 2 years old were in some form of non-parental early care and education (ECE) arrangements in 2016 (Corcoran and Steinley, 2019, National Center for Education Statistics, 2016). Overall, families of toddlers are disproportionately using home-based child care (HBCC), especially family, friend, and neighbor (FFN) care (NSECE Project Team, 2015). The reauthorization of the Child Care and Development Block Grant (CCDBG) Act of 2014 was designed to assist families in accessing high-quality child care and maintaining stable employment (Tekin, 2014). Further, the reauthorization of CCDBG identified families with infants and toddlers as a priority group that requires special attention from states (Henly & Adams, 2018).

Previous studies suggest that widespread preference for parental care for young children persists over time, especially for children younger than 3 years old (Riley and Glass, 2002, Rose and Elicker, 2010, Mason and Kuhlthau, 1989). However, an increased number of families are choosing non-parental child care for their young children (Paschall, 2019). Extant literature suggests that parents’ perceptions of child care are related to their child care search (NSECE Project Team, 2014a). Previous studies have largely focused on parents’ preferences of child care characteristics (e.g., quality, cost, convenience) to examine their decision-making processes, but little is known about how parents think about different child care arrangements in the current decade. Specifically, parents’ perceptions of child care during toddlerhood is an understudied area, and additional research is needed to assist policymakers. For example, understanding pertinent issues can inform the development of consumer information and address issues such as affordability and supply of high quality child care.

Prior studies have examined parents’ perceptions of early care and education arrangements by using non-nationally representative quantitative datasets (Carlin et al., 2019, Chaudry et al., 2011) or by conducting qualitative studies to allow for a deep exploration of a small sample (Hand, 2005, Weber et al., 2018). The 2012 National Survey of Early Care and Education (NSECE) provides a unique opportunity to use a nationally-representative dataset to further examine parents’ perceptions of child care and other family characteristics related to their child care use patterns through analyzing a nationally representative sample. Using data from the NSECE, the current study examines parents’ perceptions of three types of non-parental care for toddlers, including center-based child care (CBCC), family child care (FCC), and family, friend, and neighbor (FFN) care. The present study also identifies family characteristics related to parents’ perceptions and investigates the relationship between parents’ perceptions and their child care choices.

Parents’ perceptions of non-parental child care refer to how they think about different types of child care. Previous studies found that most parents typically spend one to four weeks searching for child care and consider only one type of child care (Forry et al., 2013, Weber, 2011). Given limited time and information, parents’ perceptions of different types of child care set the stage for how they search for child care and whether they use non-parental care. Two theoretical models serve as the framework for this study to understand the relationship between family characteristics and parents’ perceptions. First, Weber’s (2011) description of parental decision-making about child care suggests family characteristics (e.g., parental education attainment; family income; parent or child special needs; number of children/adults living in the household; race/ethnicity, culture, home language) and community characteristics (e.g., what is and is not available; number of available options) as well as parental values and beliefs of ECE arrangements are important in understanding the parental child care decision-making process.

The second theoretical model put forward by Pungello and Kurtz-Costes (1999) suggests maternal search and selection behaviors are influenced by multiple factors, such as maternal demographics, environmental context, child factors, and maternal beliefs. How parents think of different types of child care and their preferences when choosing child care are significantly related to their child care choices. Numerous studies have identified parental preferences as a predictor of parents’ child care choices. However, very little is known about parents’ basic understanding of different types of non-parental child care.

While the current study focuses on toddler care, previous literature frequently combines infant (birth to 12 months) and toddler (1- to 2-years old) care; the entanglement of infant and toddler data creates difficulty understanding the needs and perceptions of parents of toddlers. Child care during the first three years of life is of critical importance, because child care has long-lasting effects on young children’s development (Bratsch‐Hines et al., 2020, Suggate et al., 2018, Vandell et al., 2010). Non-parental child care options are increasingly important as higher rates of mothers are participating in the workforce. In 2019, over 60% of mothers with children under the age of 3 were in the workforce (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020). Families with working mothers are more likely to use non-parental child care (Meyers & Jordan, 2006).

Non-parental child care can be classified into categories based on setting: center-based child care (CBCC) and home-based child care (HBCC). Each category has perceived unique advantages and disadvantages. Centers tend to be licensed by the state, have larger facilities, operate 30 or more hours per week, and have higher enrollment numbers (NSECE Project Team, 2014b). Examples of CBCC include child care centers, Head Start and Early Head Start programs, preschools, and pre-kindergarten classrooms within public schools. CBCC tends to be rated high in educational preparedness and social interactions (NPR et al., 2016). While households identified as high-income (200% of the poverty level) and below the poverty level tend to rate CBCC as excellent or good, households with infants and toddlers (birth-36 months) tend to rate CBCC as excellent or good less often compared to households with preschoolers (NSECE Project Team, 2014a).

There are two subtypes of home-based child care (HBCC)- family, friend, neighbor (FFN) care and family child care (FCC). With FFN care, providers care for children with whom a prior relationship exists (Tonyan et al., 2017). FFN care is typically informal care provided with or without payment for services by a grandparent, relative, sibling, or neighbor; this type of care is usually unlicensed or exempt from state licensing (Bishop, 2020). In contrast, FCC tends to operate out of a home, provide care for a smaller group of children in mixed age groups, and may or may not be licensed by the state (NSECE Project Team, 2016). In general, families with children under 60 months tend to rate FFN care highly for nurturing environment, safety, affordability, and flexibility. However, these categories were more likely to receive lower ratings from households with incomes below the poverty line, as these households tend to place more value on relative and neighbor care providing social interactions (NSECE Project Team, 2014a).

Given the entangled nature of infant and toddler data, the focus of the literature review is on children under 3 years old. Data from 2012 show that 37.7% of infants and toddlers are exclusively cared for by a parent, 29.5% of infants and toddlers attend HBCC, and 11.9% of infants and toddlers are enrolled in CBCC (Paschall, 2019). These findings suggest that a large portion of toddlers are either enrolled in HBCC or parental care. Fewer centers serve infants and toddlers, which results in fewer available slots for infants and toddlers; thus, parents have fewer options when choosing CBCC (Henly & Adams, 2018). Furthermore, toddler care is both expensive and low-quality (Kreader et al., 2005). Child care for infants and toddlers is the most expensive form of child care (Aware, 2019, Jessen-Howard et al., 2018). La Paro et al. (2014) examined preschool programs, which included both toddlers and preschoolers, and found that classrooms with toddlers were in the mid-range for quality on the Emotional and Behavioral Support dimensions of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System. Additional research suggests that the learning environment for toddlers is lower quality than for children in any other age group (Bassok et al., 2016), and toddlers are cared for by a less-qualified workforce (Greenberg et al., 2018). Large scale research studies have found that approximately 20% of child care settings that participate in research fall below the minimum threshold for adequate care for infants and toddlers (Phillips & Adams, 2001).

Research that was conducted over one decade ago suggests widespread preferences for parental care for infants and toddlers (Riley and Glass, 2002, Rose and Elicker, 2010, Mason and Kuhlthau, 1989). Mothers of toddlers prefer parental child care at higher rates than mothers of preschoolers (59% vs. 36%; Rose & Elicker, 2010). Several factors influence whether families choose parental child care or non-parental care for their young children, including societal attitudes, personal beliefs, employment status, income constraints, and family support (Hand, 2005). Many mothers believe that no one else can replace the care they give their children, and some mothers of young children prefer positions in the workforce that are less demanding of their time, allowing them more time to spend with their children (Hand, 2005). However, in 2015, 46% of low-income children under age 6 with working parents were infants and toddlers (Henly, & Adams, 2018). Low-income working families with infants and toddlers rely heavily on non-parental care to support their work or schools, especially for those working in nonstandard hours. As an increased number of working families of young children use non-parental child care, it is important to explore how parents view different types of child care in this decade.

Parental attitudes about non-parental child care vary widely. Some parents view non-parental child care as a means for socialization and healthy development for their young child (Chaudry et al., 2011), and most parents believe that non-parental child care is beneficial to their children (NSECE Project Team, 2014a). In contrast, other parents prefer parental child care for the first few years of life (Hand, 2005).

Choosing child care for their young children requires parents to make complex decisions; the complexity of this process is further compounded by family characteristics that shape parents’ perceptions. Parents search for child care based on their perceptions of different types of child care (Ferreira Van Leer, 2018). Previous studies have identified a group of family characteristics related to parents’ perceptions of child care and their care choices. Factors include family income, parental employment, education attainment, family composition, race and ethnicity, language and culture, and subsidy receipt (Chaudry et al., 2011, Kim and Fram, 2009, Tang et al., 2021, Weber et al., 2018).

Family income. Family income appears to influence parental choice in the search and selection process for non-parental child care. Low-income parents of preschoolers were found to be more likely to have a favorable attitude towards non-parental child care (Tang et al., 2021). A review of the literature around parental child care decision-making indicates low-income parents place a high value on the quality of arrangements as well as concerns around cost, safety, and flexibility (Forry et al., 2013). Other studies suggest parents share some similarities in their beliefs around child care types regardless of income level. Findings from a mixed methods study of low-income parents who chose CBCC suggest some parents tend to place more priority on learning environments and less concern on trust (Weber et al., 2018). Likewise, in an interview study conducted by Chaudry and colleagues (2010), 61% of low-income families stressed the importance of learning opportunities in child care and their desire for an educational component to support school readiness. However, in a survey conducted in the Southwestern part of the U.S. by Gamble et al. (2009), as participant’s income increased, so did parental beliefs around the importance of school readiness.

Parental employment. Parental employment also predicts parents’ perception and selection of non-parental child care. Preschool parents who work full-time tend to have a favorable attitude towards all non-parental child care arrangements (Tang et al., 2021). Additionally, parents select child care arrangements that fit their work schedules and their family needs (Chaudry et al., 2011); parents who work nonstandard hours must find care that operates outside of the normal workday. Nonstandard hour care is more often provided by HBCC (Han, 2004) while CBCC typically operates with standard fixed hours, which limits options for child care selection for parents who work nonstandard hours (Enchautegui et al., 2015, Sandstrom and Chaudry, 2012). Hepburn (2018) found parental work schedules influence the selection of care type, and there was a reduced continuity in care for families with nontraditional and nonstandard schedules. Further, Hepburn’s findings suggested single-mothers working nonstandard hours use FFN care slightly more often than mothers working standard schedules. According to Han (2004), mothers working nonstandard hours used FFN care and FCC most often during the first three years of their child’s life. CBCC use among mothers working nonstandard hours (16.30%) was lower than nonworking mothers (27.38%) when their child was three years old, suggesting mothers’ work schedules are strongly associated with their choice in child care arrangement (Han, 2004).

Family composition. Family composition characteristics, such as number of parents living in the household, number of children under the age of 13 in the household, child age, and child gender, are related to parents’ perceptions of child care and care choices. Research suggests the presence of another adult in the home predicts a decrease in the use of CBCC and an increase in the likelihood of FFN care usage (Huston et al., 2002, Carlin et al., 2019). Likewise, Weber et al. (2018) found households with more children under the age of 13 or with greater social support were more likely to use FFN care than households with older children.

In order to explain parental preference patterns of child care use among low-income families, Carlin et al. (2019) analyzed survey data from Minnesota Child Care Choices. The authors concluded two-parent households were more learning-focused (e.g., learning activity, spending time with children, number of children in the same group) while parents who were practicality-focused (e.g., location, cost, available time) tended to be working mothers and have younger children. In another study, Leslie et al. (2000) reported 44% of married mothers expressed a desire for an academic format of care and 56% preferred a social format. In contrast, 75% of single mothers preferred the academic format while only 25% preferred a social format. In a mixed methods study by Weber et al. (2018), one low-income single mother expressed she liked the emphasis on early learning provided by CBCC. In the same study, another single mother expressed preference for CBCC for the convenience of location in proximity to her older child’s school and its dependability. Furthermore, previous research suggests that single-parent families are more likely to prefer and use non-parental child care compared with two-parent families (Delgado, 2009, Tang et al., 2021).

Parental education attainment. Parental education attainment is also linked to parent perceptions and care choices. Previous research suggests that parents with higher education levels prioritize school readiness while parents with lower levels of education prioritize safety and convenience (Leslie et al., 2000). In order to gain understanding around the importance of child care characteristics and parents' choice in ECE arrangements, Rose and Elicker (2008) surveyed 355 mothers of children aged 5 and under, and they noted parental education as a factor in maternal ratings of care. Flexibility of hours of operation was rated more important by mothers with less than a high school education compared to mothers with college or graduate degrees, while center-based programs and academic curriculum were rated more important by mothers with college degrees. Additionally, mothers with a high school degree rated academic-based curriculum more important in comparison to mothers with graduate-level degrees. In a study conducted by Leslie et al. (2000), findings suggest that as education increases parental concerns around child-staff ratios and curriculum increases, and as education attainment decreases the emphasis on the cost of care increases.

Race and ethnicity. The literature about the impact of race and ethnicity on parents’ perceptions of child care is mixed. Among a sample of low-income mothers, Black mothers were more likely to use CBCC, Hispanic mothers were more likely to use FFN care, and White mothers relied more on non-relative care (Radey & Brewster, 2007). Further, previous research found that Hispanic families prefer FFN care due to the shared beliefs of the family and the child care provider. Trust of the child care provider also impacted Hispanic families preference for FFN care (Chaudry et al., 2011, Forry et al., 2013). Additional research on parents’ perceptions of child care found similarities between Hispanic families and Black families views of FFN care (Guzman et al., 2016). Both groups had similar views of FFN care regarding nurturing and flexibility. However, when compared to White families, Hispanic families were less likely to perceive FFN care as nurturing, flexible, or affordable (Guzman et al., 2016).

Language. Previous studies report that immigrant families who speak a language other than English prefer sending their young child to a non-parental child care arrangement where teachers speak the same language (Minnesota Early Learning Foundation, 2011). In families that speak a language other than English, parents can communicate better with providers who speak their native language, thus impacting child care choice. Alternatively, some parents prefer child care arrangements that offer bilingual instruction, because parents want their children to learn their native language in addition to English (Chaudry et al., 2011). Some parents who speak a language other than English also view child care as an opportunity for their children to learn English; parents felt that learning English at the child care arrangement prepared their children for success in school (Chaudry et al., 2011). Specifically, other research findings suggest that families who prefer English proficiency used CBCC (Crosnoe et al., 2016).

Receipt of child care subsidy. Child care subsidy is the manner in which the government assists families in paying for their child care programs; however, subsidy eligibility requirements differ depending on the state of residence. States determine participant eligibility requirements such as family income eligibility limits, parent copayments, determination of special needs qualification, and parental employment requirement (Administration for Children and Families, 2017, Schulman and Blank, 2004). Of all the children in the United States who receive Child Care Development Fund (CCDF) subsidies, approximately 28% are under the age of 3. Research suggests that child care subsidy policies are associated with children receiving higher-quality child care (Rigby et al., 2007). Therefore, subsidies could create the opportunity for parents with lower incomes to afford higher-quality child care. Findings from a series of focus groups on child care suggest that families who receive child care subsidies experience less trouble finding child care than families who do not receive subsidies (DosRemedios & Lamari, 2020). Also, families with preschoolers that received subsidies have been found more likely to have a favorable attitude towards non-parental child care (Tang et al., 2021). In another study, Weber et al. (2018) found subsidy receipt is negatively associated with the use of FFN care. In addition to government subsidy, parents may receive financial assistance from other sources, such as welfare services or community programs, which impacts parents’ perceptions and choices about non-parental child care.

Additional research on parents’ perceptions of non-parental child care arrangements would be an important first step in understanding how to support parents’ child care search and decision-making. Although previous studies typically combined infant and toddler groups, the current study focuses on parents of toddlers specifically for several reasons. First, children’s age is an essential factor in the selection process, with parents’ perceptions and preferences of child care varying greatly by children’s age. One to two years old is a critical transition period for children’s development, and many families start using non-parental care for their young children (Chaudry et al., 2011). However, prior research primarily focused on preschoolers (3- to 5-years old) and rarely studied toddlers (1- to 2-years old). Second, the supply and cost of toddler care are different from infant care (NSECE Project Team, 2014b). Most infants are cared for by parents exclusively. Due to these differences, parents’ perceptions may vary in terms of affordability and flexibility. Further, most parents of infants have a strong preference for parental care and are less likely to prioritize school readiness during their child care searches (Chaudry et al., 2011). These distinctions have the potential to reduce the validity of latent profile analysis by affecting unobserved population heterogeneity (Peugh & Fan, 2013). Thus, the current study focused only on parents with toddlers.

The current study examines toddler parents’ perceptions of three ECE arrangements, including CBCC, FCC, and FFN care, in six dimensions: nurturing environment, school readiness, social interactions, safety, affordability, and flexibility. This study also identifies demographics related to parents’ perceptions of ECE arrangements. Finally, we consider the connection between parents’ perceptions and whether they use non-parental care for their toddler.

Section snippets

Data source

This study uses data from a nationally representative sample from the 2012 National Survey of Early Care and Education (NSECE), which was funded by the Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation (OPRE) in the Administration for Children and Families (ACF), US Department of Health and Human Services. The 2012 NSECE consists of four integrated surveys: households with children under 13, home-based providers, center-based providers, and the center-based provider workforce. For the purpose of the

Descriptive Statistics

Table 1 shows weighted descriptive statistics of the households. Approximately 59% of toddlers were in non-parental care in 2012. Children’s gender was almost evenly divided, and children were 23 months on average. More than half of the parents were White and had access to a nearby relative who is able to care for children. The majority of parents spoke English only. Most households are two-parent families with at least one parent working during nonstandard hours. Parents’ educational

Discussion

This study examined parents’ perceptions of non-parental child care and the relationship between their perceptions and care choices. Parents’ perceptions were measured by their ratings of three child care types (CBCC, FCC, and FFN care) on six dimensions, including nurturing environment, school readiness, social interactions, safety, affordability, and flexibility. Results suggest that parents of toddlers were classified into two profiles. Approximately half of the parents fell into the

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Jing Tang: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing–original draft, Writing – review & editing, Project administration. Cara L. Kelly: Writing–original draft, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. Annette Pic: Resources, Writing–original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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