Three-dimensional geometry of the human biceps femoris long head measured in vivo using magnetic resonance imaging
Introduction
Hamstring muscle strain-type injuries are common in many sports, including soccer (Ekstrand et al., 2011), rugby (Fuller et al., 2008) and Australian Rules football (Orchard and Seward, 2002). Such injuries tend to occur while sprinting at or close to maximal speeds (Askling et al., 2007, Brooks et al., 2006, Gabbe et al., 2006, Verrall et al., 2003, Woods et al., 2004). When sprinting, the hamstrings are highly activated during the stance and terminal swing phases of the stride cycle (Higashihara et al., 2010, Jonhagen et al., 1996, Kyröläinen et al., 1999, Mann et al., 1986, Mero and Komi, 1987). It has been proposed that injury risk is likely to be greatest during terminal swing when the hamstrings are contracting eccentrically (Chumanov et al., 2011, Chumanov et al., 2012, Schache et al., 2012). Numerous studies have shown that hamstring muscle strain-type injuries typically involve the biceps femoris long head (BFLH) (Askling et al., 2007, Connell et al., 2004, Koulouris and Connell, 2003, Verrall et al., 2003). An understanding of the geometrical properties that determine the mechanical action of BFLH about the hip and knee joints during the terminal swing phase of the stride cycle is therefore of interest.
For a given muscle spanning a joint, the magnitude of the joint torque generated by the muscle's force depends on the muscle's moment arm. Since the moment arm of a muscle is a function of its musculotendon path, the mechanical action of a muscle may be described by both the line-of-action and moment arm of the muscle. Many experimental studies have attempted to measure these geometrical properties for BFLH at the hip and/or knee joints (Buford et al., 1997, Buford et al., 2001, Dostal et al., 1986, Duda et al., 1996, Herzog and Read, 1993, Kellis and Baltzopoulos, 1999, Nemeth and Ohlsen, 1985, Pohtilla, 1969, Spoor and van Leeuwen, 1992, Visser et al., 1990, Wretenberg et al., 1996). However, there are some notable limitations associated with studies conducted to date. First, results are often based on measurements obtained from elderly cadaveric specimens (Buford et al., 1997, Buford et al., 2001, Dostal et al., 1986, Duda et al., 1996, Herzog and Read, 1993, Pohtilla, 1969, Spoor and van Leeuwen, 1992), and thus may not necessarily be directly applicable to young living people. Second, some studies have only evaluated the mechanical action of BFLH about a single joint (Buford et al., 1997, Buford et al., 2001, Dostal et al., 1986, Kellis and Baltzopoulos, 1999, Nemeth and Ohlsen, 1985, Pohtilla, 1969, Spoor and van Leeuwen, 1992, Wretenberg et al., 1996), or just a single plane of joint motion (Buford et al., 1997, Buford et al., 2001, Herzog and Read, 1993, Kellis and Baltzopoulos, 1999, Nemeth and Ohlsen, 1985, Pohtilla, 1969, Spoor and van Leeuwen, 1992, Visser et al., 1990). To our knowledge, no study has measured the three-dimensional lines-of-action and moment arms for BFLH about the hip and knee joints in vivo. Does BFLH function solely as a hip extensor and knee flexor during the terminal swing phase of the stride cycle or does it have the potential to cause rotation about the hip and knee joints in the frontal and transverse planes also? This question cannot be answered based on available experimental data in the literature.
In the present study, magnetic resonance (MR) imaging was used to measure the three-dimensional lines-of-action and moment arms of BFLH about the hip and knee joints in vivo. The specific aim was to quantify these geometric properties for a pose where the hip and knee joints were flexed to mimic the orientation of the lower-limb during the terminal swing phase of the stride cycle. The lines-of-action and moment arms of BFLH about the hip and knee joints were also quantified for a reference pose (the anatomical position) for comparative purposes.
Section snippets
Participants
Four healthy adult male participants were recruited with an average age of 26.3 (SD 7.5) years, height 173.0 (SD 4.2) cm and body mass 62.8 (SD 8.7) kg. Participants provided written informed consent and prior approval was obtained from the Human Research Ethics Advisory Group at The University of Melbourne.
MR image acquisition
MR images were obtained using a Siemens 1.5 T Magnetom Espree system. Axial scans of the right lower-limb were performed from the iliac spines to the proximal tibia under two testing conditions:
Results
Data describing the three-dimensional lines-of-action for BFLH are contained in Table 1, Table 2. For all participants and both testing conditions, the line-of-action of BFLH was directed laterally and inferiorly in the hip joint coordinate system, whereas it was directed medially and superiorly in the knee joint coordinate system. In contrast, the antero-posterior direction of the BFLH line-of-action in the hip and knee joint coordinate systems varied somewhat across participants and testing
Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to assess the geometry of BFLH for a pose where the hip and knee joints were flexed to mimic the orientation of the lower-limb during the terminal swing phase of the stride cycle and the hamstrings were activated via a submaximal isometric contraction (terminal swing pose). Data were compared to that obtained for a pose where the hip and knee joints were fully extended and the hamstrings were relaxed (reference pose). The BFLH moment arm components about the
Conclusions
In summary, this study quantified the three-dimensional lines-of-action and moment arms of BFLH about the hip and knee joints in vivo. The mechanical advantage of BFLH about the hip and knee joints was found to be increased in the sagittal plane but not in the frontal and transverse planes for the terminal swing pose compared to the reference pose. The data presented can be used to verify the accuracy with which the musculotendon path for BFLH is represented in a mathematical model of the body.
Conflict of interest
There are no conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, to be declared by the author(s).
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by an Australian Research Council Discovery Project grant (DP1095366) and an Australian Research Council Linkage Project grant (LP110100262). Partial funding from a VESKI Innovation Fellowship awarded to M. G. P. is also gratefully acknowledged. Finally, the authors would like to acknowledge the contributions that Aaron Chong, Kevin Zhu and Jun Kai Chan made towards this study.
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