Magnetoencephalography signals are influenced by skull defects
Introduction
The signals acquired by electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) are due to the electric currents generated by brain activity. The volume current through the tissues inside the head modifies the sensor signals at the head surface. The flow of electric current through the tissues influences the potentials observed at the electrodes in EEG. To a lesser degree, the volume current also influences the magnetic flux observed in MEG. The skull has the most resistive tissue of the head, and therefore has the strongest influence on these techniques. The neurological term breach rhythm describes an increase in the amplitude of alpha, beta, and mu rhythms of the brain that occurs proximal to or over post-surgical skull defects (Cobb et al., 1979). At these locations, the absence of skull tissue allows volume currents to reach the electrodes largely unfiltered and unattenuated. The sharper features of breach activity are easily mistaken for interictal epileptic discharges (Brigo et al., 2011). MEG is reported to be less sensitive than EEG to skull defects (Lee et al., 2010).
Theoretically, EEG and MEG signals should both be distorted by the skull and any defects in it. The degree of distortion depends on the depth, orientation, and extent of the source, as well as the geometry and composition of the skull and the skull defect (Meijs et al., 1987, Hämäläinen and Sarvas, 1989). However, the influence of the skull is estimated to be much less on components of MEG signals than on those of EEG signals, based on considerations under simplified conditions of a flat, layered, inhomogeneous volume conductor (Cohen and Hosaka, 1976) and using a concentric, multilayered, spherical, homogeneous volume conductor (Geselowitz, 1970, Grynzpan and Geselowitz, 1973).
A small number of in vivo animal and post-mortem phantom experiments have examined the influence of skull defects on MEG and EEG signals. Barth et al. (1986) used a physical coaxial dipole to simulate intracerebral currents in a formalin-fixed human cranial specimen that had been filled with conducting jelly. Their visual inspection found the MEG signals above a craniotomy to be qualitatively indistinguishable from those above intact skull. Okada et al., (1999b) conducted EEG and MEG measurements associated with somatic evoked responses in anaesthetized piglets, first over intact skull and then over the dura after a large section of skull was removed (skull on versus skull off). They found no significant difference in MEG signal amplitude or morphology, except for an attenuation of the MEG signal when the skull was removed, which was stronger for deeper sources (25% for a 14 mm-deep source).
The limitations of existing experiments are that (1) the skull defect was filled with non-conducting air (except in (Flemming et al., 2005) for EEG); (2) the skull defect was large compared with the sensor planes (skull-on versus skull-off); and (3) that evoked responses were used, which have a high variability with regard to source position, extent, orientation, and amplitude. Therefore, the objective of this study is to experimentally investigate the influence of conducting skull defects on EEG and MEG signals above and around a skull defect, using a well-defined current source under the middle and edge of the defect and next to it, in an in vivo rabbit model.
Section snippets
Electroencephalography
We constructed a miniaturized 64-channel EEG array (Fig. 1A) with electrodes 1.4 mm apart to achieve sufficient spatial sampling density. Ag/AgCl ball electrodes of 0.6 mm diameter were arranged in a regular grid embedded in silicone. The EEG signals were amplified using two synchronized SynAmps (Compumedics NeuroScan, Charlotte, NC, USA) amplifiers. A sampling rate of 1 kHz was used with an analog 0.3–300 Hz band-pass filter and a 50 Hz notch filter. The EEG array position within a stereotactic
Setup geometries
Successful recordings were made in five animals: four in vivo with a source oriented tangentially to the skull surface, and one post mortem with a radially oriented source. The skull thickness around defect 1 was comparatively homogeneous (Table 2). The CT images confirmed that the three layers of the skull around the defects were differentiable and fully developed. The skull defects were of similar sizes. Among the animals, sources were located at different depths from the inner skull surface
Amplitude
A conducting skull defect has much less influence on flux density map than on potential map; however, the influence is substantial, with a field-map amplitude reduction of approximately 20% compared with intact skull (Fig. 7C). If we consider the deviation at a particular point in the sensor plane, such as the peak amplitude in the difference map (Fig. 8, shift pos. 16, peak negative amplitude −5 127 fT), then this deviation constitutes a −49.2% change in the intact skull MEG signal amplitude at
Conclusion
For both MEG and EEG, we observed substantial signal amplitude and topography changes due to a skull defect. The changes were dependent on the exact geometry of the skull defect and the relative orientation and position of the source. The conductivity of the skull defect had a modulating influence on the local amplitude.
We conclude that a realistic representation of the skull and skull defects in volume conductor models of the head is important for the forward simulation of not only EEG but
Conflict of interest disclosure
All funding sources supporting this work are acknowledged. The authors will disclose to the editor any pertinent financial interests associated with the manufacture of any drug or product described in this manuscript.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the German Research Foundation [Ha2899/14-1]; the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council [558425]; the German Academic Exchange Service [D/08/13928, 54388947]; and the Australian Group of Eight. We wish to thank Stefan Clauss, Hannes Nowak, Ralph Huonker, Frank Gießler, Daniel Güllmar, Eric Lopatta, Simon Vogrin, Levin Kuhlmann, David Grayden, and Mark Cook for their support. We thank the Research Workshop of the Jena University Hospital for the
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