Center-based early childhood care and education program quality: A South African study
Introduction
Since democratic government in South Africa was achieved in 1994, access to early childhood services of different kinds has been promoted as both a human resource capacity building strategy and a means to achieving equity for poor children. This mirrors a trend in many low- and middle-income countries, strengthened by international evidence for the value of early intervention (Engle et al., 2007, Engle et al., 2011), and commitment to Education for All Goals. Between 1994 and 2013, a number of policies and plans have been piloted for the expansion of Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) services.
ECCE services for children under five years of age fall under the auspices of an interdepartmental committee including the National Departments of Social Development, Basic Education and Health. Each of the nine provincial governments is responsible for regulating provision of services. An Integrated Early Childhood Development Programme of Action provides the policy framework for services to children at home, in the community, and in ECCE centers. The South African Government’s Medium Term Strategic Framework for 2009–2014 (Government of South Africa, 2009) prioritizes access to quality ECCE center services and White Paper 5: Early Childhood Development (Department of Education, 2001a) provides for a universal reception (pre-primary) year for five year olds as part of the schooling system. In 2013, 91% of Grade-1 children were reported to have attended a formal reception class (Department of Basic Education, 2015a).
Increasing concern about poor schooling outcomes has fueled political support for ECCE services in South Africa. In 2014, average achievement at Grade 3 on the Annual National Assessments was a mark of 56% for literacy and 56% for mathematics, with greatest underachievement in the poorest areas (Department of Basic Education, 2014). Measures to address this include attention to early childhood services as well as interventions in the schooling system. National Early Learning Development Standards were introduced in 2009 (Department of Education, 2009) and a National Curriculum Framework for Children from Birth to Four (Department of Basic Education, 2015b) which was piloted in 2015.
Evidence to support policy is emerging. Recent South African studies have indicated an association between preschool attendance and better schooling outcomes. A study conducted under the auspices of the Southern African Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (Southern and Eastern African Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ), 2011) found that children with longer durations of preschool had higher scores in reading and mathematics at Grade 3. Two years greatly increased scores compared with one but after this, tended to level off. National Income Dynamics Study data (Gustafsson, 2010) also indicate that children who have received pre-primary schooling perform better than those who have not. The finding is most robust in rural contexts and is independent of home background.
Approximately 35% of children in South Africa attended a formal ECCE facility or program including crèches, day-care centers, playgroups, and pre-primary schools in 2014 (Statistics South Africa, 2015). However, only 20% of children in the bottom two income quintiles (applies to 58% of 0–4 year olds) access any form of ECCE (Harrison, 2012). The sector of the population that is most in need of quality support for early learning is least likely to access it. A significant barrier is cost. Improving the quality of ECCE centers through registration/licensing with provincial governments, expanded government subsidies for centers serving poor children, and an extensive training program to improve staff qualifications remains the major focus of government plans for younger children (Biersteker, 2011; Department of Public Works, 2011; Government of South Africa, 2009), and is driven by recognition that services must be of high quality if they are to place children on a better educational trajectory and improve the quality of learning in formal schooling (Department of Basic Education, 2010; Gustafsson, 2010; Southern and Eastern African Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ), 2011). The quality imperative has also been reaffirmed as part of the Early Childhood Care and Education agenda for action of Education for All (UNESCO, 2010) to which South Africa is a signatory.
The model of quality espoused by the Government of South Africa and ECCE training institutions, follows universal views of quality ECCE as promoted in the USA, United Kingdom, and by international ECCE bodies, such as the Asia-Pacific Regional Network for Early Childhood (Profeta, 2012, Department for Education, 2014, International Step by Step Association (ISSA), 2011, Copple and Bredekamp, 2009). From this perspective high-quality care provides children with a wide variety of age-appropriate activities to support development across domains: a focus on language; a balance of free choice and teacher-directed activities; and warm teacher–child interaction that promotes learning. In keeping with international practice, and of particular importance in South Africa, are the acceptance of cultural diversity and the inclusion of local as well as global materials and content in the program. The South African National Curriculum Framework promotes playful pedagogy for the delivery of the curriculum and, as far as possible, mother tongue as the medium for learning and teaching. However the guiding framework and ECCE program regulations are no different from what might be found in many other ECCE settings around the world.
While the definition of quality is relative and complex, international evidence indicates that children who attend high-quality programs have better outcomes in several developmental domains. For example, Burchinal et al. (2000) found that higher-quality child care related to higher measures of cognitive and language development and communication skills over time for infants 6–36 months even after adjusting for certain child and family characteristics. Love, Harrison, Sagi-Schwartz, van Ijzendoorn, and Ross (2003) report that Early Head Start found positive cognitive, language and socio-emotional development gains for children enrolled in a center program that provided high levels of good quality care. The National Institute of Child Health and Development (NICHD) Early Child Care Research Network (ECCRN) study found high quality care to be related to better cognitive outcomes, less impulsivity, and better social competence at 4.5 years (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2003, NICHD Early Childhood Care Research Network, 2005).
Better quality ECCE predicts better school outcomes. Higher-quality early child care of children 6–54 months promotes mathematics and reading achievement of low income children in middle childhood (Dearing, McCartney, & Taylor, 2009). Sylva et al. (2006) found that the educational quality of ECCE classrooms is related to enhanced cognitive and language development. While most of the evidence is from higher-income country studies, findings from low- and middle-income countries in the Global South are emerging. This study seeks to contribute to the body of evidence.
For example, Aboud (2006) found that low-income preschool children in Bangladesh had significantly higher school readiness test scores than children who had not attended preschools. They also performed better on vocabulary and verbal and non-verbal reasoning. Classroom quality was significantly associated with group cognitive score. In Kenya, Mwaura (2009) found Madrassa Resource Center preschools to be of higher quality than conventional community preschools. Children who had attended Madrassa centers performed significantly better on measures of language and cognition than children who had had no preschool intervention or had attended community preschools (Mwaura, Sylva, & Malmberg, 2008). In South India, Rao (2010) demonstrated the influence of preschool quality on the development of 4 year old children from poor rural families. In a Cambodian study, Rao et al. (2012) found that children who had attended state preschools with better-trained staff and more educational resources performed better on developmental measures than children in either community preschools or home programs. They note that even where programs might be regarded as being of poorer quality by standards used in higher income countries, children in disadvantaged circumstances benefitted. Consistent with findings from higher-income countries, where program quality was better, child outcomes were improved. A South African evaluation of interventions to improve ECCE, Dawes, Biersteker, and Hendricks (2012) found that children in poor rural and peri-urban communities who had attended preschools where teachers had received training and support significantly outperformed children who had no preschool experience when they entered reception classes at age five.
The definition and measurement of quality indicators for ECCE settings is complex and contested, given variable resources in different contexts and differing cultural values placed on children developing particular attributes and skills (Myers, 2006, Nsamenang, 2006, Penn, 2005, Tobin, 2005). However, dimensions commonly focused upon include structural variables such as the physical setting, teacher–child ratio, group size, teacher qualifications, learning materials, and process variables including classroom interactions.
There is broad agreement that elements such as a holistic curriculum, active child play with concrete materials, and sensitive, mediated caregiver/child interaction contribute to better child outcomes. For example, Montie, Xiang, and Schweinhart (2006), using data from 10 countries, found significantly better language outcomes at age 7 from children who had attended preschools where free-choice activities predominated, and their cognitive performance was better if they spent less time in whole-group activities and where they had access to many and varied materials. Sylva et al., 2006, Sylva et al., 2007 demonstrated the positive effects of teacher–child interaction and the nature of teaching and learning activities in English pre-schools on children’s cognitive and social development at the start of primary school. Pedagogy that incorporated adult led ‘teaching,’ the provision of instructive learning environments, and ‘sustained shared thinking’ to extend children’s learning was found to be most effective (Sylva, Melhuish, Sammons, Siraj-Blatchford, & Taggart, 2004).
Starting Strong III (OECD, 2012), reviewing current evidence, also concludes that combining child-initiated with teacher-initiated content and activities maximizes learning, development and social outcomes. In sum, a balance of many free choice activities with carefully selected materials, engagement with peers, and interactions with teachers in adult-led group activities, as well as engagements based on child initiated activities are associated with better child learning outcomes.
There is less consensus on ratios and class size. For example, while Burchinal et al. (2000) found that classes meeting US professional standards for adult-child ratios tended to have more favorable language outcomes, Montie et al. (2006) found group size to be unrelated to language outcomes at age 7 leading to the conclusion that relationships between group size, adult-child ratio, and process characteristics are a function of cultural practice. Likewise Siraj-Blatchford and Wong (1999) and Tobin (2005) have pointed out that teacher–child ratios and class sizes considerably in excess of those approved by United States standards can achieve excellent outcomes.
Teacher training is generally used as a quality indicator. Fukkink and Lont’s (2007) review of specialized training interventions suggests a causal link between caregiver training, caregiver competencies, and child behavior. Phillips, Mekod, Scarr, McCartney, and Abbott-Smith (2000) found that teacher training linked to higher-quality classroom processes as have other studies (Love, Schochet, & Meckstroth, 2002; Tarullo, 2002). But in seven major ECCE studies, using teacher qualifications to predict classroom and academic outcomes for children, Early et al. (2007) found largely null and contradictory findings. Evaluations in South Africa (Department of Education, 2001b; Dlamini, Ebrahim, Ntshingila, & Soobrayan, 1996) have also indicated that qualification levels do not necessarily link to better quality programs. In different country contexts, larger groups did not predict poorer outcomes and likewise better qualifications did not necessarily predict better child performance or quality classrooms.
There is limited research on the role of management variables as contributors to quality (Muijs, Aubrey, Harris, & Briggs, 2004). However, governance and management, including staff support (Britto, Yoshikawa, & Boller, 2011; OECD, 2001), and working conditions (Phillips et al., 2000) have recently received attention. Britto et al. (2011) observe that though leadership and management is critical to quality, they are not often considered in assessments of quality. In centers, these variables likely affect access to resources and how these are allocated. Management quality is likely to influence responsiveness to staffing issues, supervision, and organizational climate. Management and administration standards are often a component of requirements for licensing and accreditation. For example, the Association for Childhood Education International (2006) includes a category of “Accountability, supervision and management” of ECCE programs in its Global Guidelines on Quality. This, among other aspects, includes professionalization, compliance with government policy, and partnership with parents. South African guidelines for early childhood services also include a focus on management and administration (Department of Social Development, 2006).
Research on management of ECCE services has tended to focus on professional leadership aspects including ECCE qualifications of directors (Ackerman, 2008; Fowler, Bloom, Talan, Beneke, & Kelton, 2008; McCormick Center for Early Childhood Leadership, 2008, McCormick Center for Early Childhood Leadership, 2010; Phillips et al., 2000). The ‘Effective Leadership in the Early Years Sector’ (ELEYS) study (Siraj-Blatchford & Manni, 2008), showed that effective early years programs were almost always characterized by strong leadership, low staff turnover, and consistency of approach, especially in relation to the curriculum and pedagogy.
Studies using the Program Administration Scale (Talan & Bloom, 2004) have produced evidence for a relationship between quality of administrative practices and early childhood classroom quality (Ackerman, 2008, Dennis, 2010, Lower and Cassidy, 2007, McCormick Center for Early Childhood Leadership, 2010). Facilities that provide better working conditions have been observed to provide better care and education (Litjens & Taguma, 2010), and managers of ECCE centers are a key factor in providing favorable working conditions for their staff (OECD, 2012). Some aspects of professional support include providing opportunities for professional development, regular staff meetings, and good working relationships (OECD, 2012).
Observations of ECCE centers in countries which have some demographic similarities with South Africa using the Infant and Toddler Rating Scale (ITERS) or Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale (ECERS) suggest that quality is generally inadequate to minimal rather than good to excellent. For example, a study of infant classes in six Brazilian cities (Verdisco & Perez Alfaro, 2010) found minimal infrastructure quality, adequate teacher–child Interaction, and inadequate ratings on the Activities subscale (study means are not comparable with others as the authors used a 10 point rather than a 7 point scale for scoring). In preschool classes (over 30 months), ECERS scores in Kenyan centers were in the minimal range for Infrastructure and Activities but good for Interaction (Mwaura, 2009). Aboud’s (2006) study of 22 preschools in rural Bangladesh found that they were inadequate on Infrastructure, Care Routines, Activities and Programme Schedule, but in the minimal range for Interactions which were friendly and respectful. Even in high-income countries, there is evidence that the scores can be low. Composite ITERS scores in the Netherlands were 3.4 (Vermeer et al., 2008) and Canada (Goelman et al., 2006) respectively. And studies in less wealthy but developed Portugal (Pessanha, Aguiar, & Bairrao, 2007) and Greece (Petrogiannis, 2002) have rendered composite ITERS scores of 2.6 (inadequate) and 3.5 (minimal) respectively. Across the studies, scores on the Activities subscale tend to be low.
Integration of care and education is widely recognized to be an indicator of a good quality program—including health and nutrition elements which are so important to address in low-income settings (Engle et al., 2007; UNESCO, 2007, 2010). Recently, integration has also come to mean service provision beyond the center including the ability to make referrals (e.g. for health services), and to work with social, health, and adult education authorities. OECD (2001) and the South African National Integrated Plan for Early Childhood Development (Department of Education, 2005) make provision for integration as a quality dimension. Ang (2012) notes the significance of integrated and multiagency working as a factor which influences leadership of early childhood centers and impacts on professional practice.
Little is known about the quality of ECCE centers in South Africa. A nationwide audit was conducted by the Department of Education (2001a), but did not comprehensively assess the quality of the program being offered to children. Since then, two studies in which neither standardized nor comparable measures were used have been conducted. De Witt’s (2010) small-scale study of the quality of ECCE classes provided by non-profit organizations in low-income, rural communities showed that few centers had basic resources for teaching. Access to clean water on site and sanitation were lacking in many cases. Prior to training and provision of equipment, there were no regular music or art activities and no activities to develop perceptual and logical skills. The University of the Witwatersrand School of Education (2009) studied the quality of public Reception Year classes in a largely urban province. Only half the teachers used language to extend learning, classes tended to be overly formal rather than using a free-play approach, and there was little evidence of music and movement or early science activities.
Both these studies therefore indicate that programs were generally of poor quality. A recent South African public expenditure tracking study included an assessment of service quality in over 600 Reception Year classes and ECCE facilities for younger children (Department of Basic Education, 2010). A purpose-designed rather than standardized classroom quality index was used. Indicators included: Infrastructure, Learning and Teaching Support Materials (furniture, toys, books and art materials), Daily Program (free play, language and creative activities, large and fine motor development), and records of children’s work. Program quality was found to be better in schools located in the top three income quintiles (a classification used by the Department of Basic Education), indicating that children from financially advantaged backgrounds received the better service.
The Department of Social Development of the Western Cape Provincial Government in South Africa (the sponsor) contracted the Human Sciences Research Council (www.hsrc.ac.za) to undertake a study to establish the quality of ECCE in the Province. The HSRC in turn subcontracted the current authors to design and conduct the study and report on the findings. The sponsor assisted with the construction of the sampling frame for participant selection (based on their administrative records) and facilitated entry to ECCE centers selected for participation. The sponsor played no further role, but has approved the submission of this paper for publication. The study also provided a baseline assessment of the extent to which centers met national norms and standards for ECCE services (Department of Social Development, 2006).
While providing a practical tool to inform initiatives to improve ECCE provisioning and programming, the study adds to other research investigating quality of centers in low- and middle-income countries. The two central objectives were to describe the quality of a representative sample of ECCE centers in the Western Cape Province, and to develop an understanding of factors contributing to levels of care and education provided. In addition to a basic assessment of the quality of the space, program, activities, routines, caregiver interaction, the role of factors such as management quality, income through fees charged and subsidies received, licensing, teacher qualifications and experience, and child-teacher ratios are examined so as to establish their influence on the quality of the classroom environment.
Section snippets
Participants
The study was undertaken in one of South Africa’s nine provinces, the Western Cape, which according to the 2011Census, has a population of 5.82 million. Sixty four per cent (3.73 Million) are residents in Cape Town, and the balance is spread across much smaller towns and rural settlements (Statistics South Africa, 2012). The 0-4 years (inclusive) population is 564 801. Of this age group, 39% are estimated to participate in some form of out of home care, including attendance at a crèche (group
Descriptive findings on program quality
Results for infant and toddler and early childhood (Pre-K) classes are reported separately as the ITERS-R and ECERS-R are not calibrated. In what follows, mean subscale scores are reported together with observation notes provided by assessors. These are not intended to be representative, but rather to provide a sense of commonly observed conditions.
Discussion
The present research is the first representative study to in South Africa to describe ECCE program quality and its predictors. Regarding the first objective, the results showed that both facilities for younger and older children fall just above the level interpreted as ‘minimal’ quality on both the ITERS-R and ECERS-R (scores of 3–4), indicating adequate custodial care including some form of program activities. This is in many respects the minimum that the South African Guidelines for Early
Conclusion
The findings indicate the need to improve the quality of learning environments in areas of South Africa studied, and particularly for children in poor communities most at risk for loss of potential and intergenerational poverty (Richter et al., 2012). A focus on improved provision of educational activities, scaffolding of learning, and attention to language stimulation is required. Particular attention is needed to improve quality for infant and toddler classes, which were of consistently lower
Disclosure
The Western Cape Provincial Government contracted the Human Sciences Research Council of South Africa (HSRC) to undertake the study. That institution subcontracted the authors to conduct the research. Neither the HSRC nor the authors have relationships of any kind with any party that could constitute a conflict of interest and lead to bias.
Acknowledgements
The authors are most grateful to the centre managers and teachers who gave their time to participate in this study. We are also grateful to the Editor and reviewers for their most helpful comments on previous versions of this article. These have assisted us to improve the quality of this contribution.
References (96)
Evaluation of an early childhood preschool program in rural Bangladesh
Early Childhood Research Quarterly
(2006)- et al.
Strategies to avoid the loss of developmental potential in more than 200 million children in the developing world
The Lancet
(2007) - et al.
Strategies for reducing inequalities and improving developmental outcomes for young children in low and middle income countries
The Lancet
(2011) - et al.
Does training matter? A meta-analysis and review of caregiver training studies
Early Childhood Research Quarterly
(2007) - et al.
Towards a predictive model of quality in Canadian child care centers
Early Childhood Research Quarterly
(2006) - et al.
Preschool experience in 10 countries: cognitive and language performance at age 7
Early Childhood Research Quarterly
(2006) - et al.
Influence of structural features on Portuguese toddler child care quality
Early Childhood Research Quarterly
(2007) - et al.
Within and beyond the classroom door: assessing quality in child care centers
Early Childhood Research Quarterly
(2000) - et al.
Capturing quality in early childhood through environmental rating scales
Early Childhood Research Quarterly
(2006) - et al.
Teacher education, motivation, compensation, workplace support, and links to quality of center-based child care and teachers’ intention to stay in the early childhood profession
Early Childhood Research Quarterly.
(2007)