Can early childhood education programs support positive outcomes for indigenous children? A systematic review of the international literature
Introduction
There is a growing acceptance among scholars, professionals and policy-makers regarding the importance of the early years of a child's development (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2007, 2010; Shonkoff, 2012). However, children's developmental outcomes are not evenly distributed among populations. Children identified as experiencing high levels of disadvantage, neglect and trauma during their early years have a markedly increased risk of delay in their development of cognitive, language, social and emotional skills (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2015; Perry, 2013; Schore, 2001; Van Ijzendoorn, Schuengel, & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 1999).
Children in indigenous communities worldwide face greater barriers to positive developmental, educational and life outcomes than children in many other communities (Anderson et al., 2016). While there are a number of definitions, the term indigenous1 is defined in this review according to the World Health Organisation's definition:
Indigenous populations are communities that live within, or are attached to, geographically distinct traditional habitats or ancestral territories, and who identify themselves as being part of a distinct cultural group, descended from groups present in the area before modern states were created and current borders defined. They generally maintain cultural and social identities, and social, economic, cultural and political institutions, separate from the mainstream or dominant society or culture (World Health Organisation, 2019).
This relatively broad definition was chosen to allow for a wide net to be cast in identifying papers for inclusion in this review.
Indigenous people and communities experience higher rates of economic, health and social disadvantage than many other groups. These experiences and their effects are entwined with entrenched individual, structural and systemic racism, discrimination and power imbalances arising from histories of colonisation and/or assimilation. Together and separately, these factors can affect indigenous children's development, health, educational experiences and learning (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2019; Anderson et al., 2016; Best Start Resource Centre, 2010; Moodie, Maxwell, & Rudolph, 2019).
Research seeking to understand the barriers faced by indigenous children has global relevance. It is relevant to indigenous communities and others seeking to address barriers faced by those communities. It is also relevant to researchers and policy-makers from current or former colonial powers whose past and present are linked to the ongoing impacts of colonialism. In addition, understanding the features of effective programs for indigenous children may hold lessons for others (Battiste, 2010; OECD, 2017). It may assist those seeking to provide quality bi-lingual, multilingual or cross-cultural education for children from regional and minority groups, including for children of recent migrants or refugees (van Dongera, van der Meer, & Sterk, 2017).
Participation in traditional cultural practices and maintaining a strong sense of cultural identity can act as protective factors for indigenous children and families (Australian Government Department of Social Services, 2015; Battiste, 2010; Harrison et al., 2019; Kanu, 2011; Lohoar, Butera, & Kennedy, 2014). A range of service types and programs can support indigenous parents, families and children in this way (Goldstein, 2017; Kemp et al., 2018; Wagner & Clayton, 1999). This includes early childhood education and care (ECEC) programs, services and centres, which are the focus of this review.
ECEC is one platform to improve outcomes for all children. Children's learning outcomes are influenced by the quality of instruction they receive in ECEC settings and programs (Early et al., 2007; Neuman & Dickinson, 2010; Tayler, Ishimine, Cloney, Cleveland, & Thorpe, 2013). Attendance at high-quality ECEC services has positive impacts on children's development, school readiness and educational outcomes, both in the short- and long-term (Apps, Mendolia, & Walker, 2013; Burchinal et al., 2011; Early et al., 2007; Goldfeld et al., 2016; Heckman & Masterov, 2007; Melhuish et al., 2015; Sylva, Melhuish, Sammons, Siraj-Blatchford, & Taggart, 2004; Vandell et al., 2010). Low-quality ECEC, however, can have detrimental impacts (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), 2015; Australian Productivity Commission, 2014; Sylva et al., 2004).
Attending high-quality early childhood services can be particularly effective for children who live in disadvantaged circumstances (Elliott, 2006; Moore, 2006; Taggart, Sylva, Melhuish, Sammons, & Siraj, 2015). As such, children from indigenous communities stand to benefit greatly from high-quality ECEC programs (OECD, 2017). Indigenous children are less likely to participate in ECEC than other children, particularly those from the least affluent families (Azpitarte et al., 2016; OECD, 2017), yet attendance at ECEC services has been associated with better short-term cognitive outcomes for indigenous children, as well as longer-term cognitive and developmental improvements (Arcos Holzinger & Biddle, 2015). Nonetheless, there is little documentation in the international literature of successful ECEC programs focusing on indigenous children.
Despite evidence of the importance of ECEC, the quality of instruction offered by early childhood educators has been found to be low overall (Cloney, Cleveland, Hattie, & Tayler, 2016; Justice, Mashburn, Hamre, & Pianta, 2008; Tayler et al., 2013). There is much to be learned about how to implement and evaluate high-quality ECEC programs with fidelity in any context. Internationally, research has found that incorporating ‘best practice’ ECEC approaches into local programs can be complicated, as these programs lack sensitivity to the needs of diverse cultural groups (Brown & Lan, 2015). Even less is known about how to implement high-quality programs in indigenous contexts, including the appropriateness and acceptability of ECEC programs to diverse local indigenous communities.
In ECEC, the importance of cultural identity, cultural respect and connection noted above can be embodied through two intertwined practices: Involving families and the community in governance and implementation, and cultural programming (Best Start Resource Centre, 2010; Guenther, Lowe, Burgess, Vass, & Moodie, 2019; Page et al., 2019; Secretariat of National Aboriginal and Islander Child Care, 2012; Trudgett & Grace, 2011). ECEC which does not embody this approach could be perceived to accelerate the loss of cultural and language heritage for indigenous children (Trudgett & Grace, 2011).
Family involvement in programs can strengthen important family bonds, support cultural resilience, and increase the capacity of families to support the learning and development of their children (Arcos Holzinger & Biddle, 2015; Ball, 2005; National Health and Medical Research Council, 2018). Engagement with indigenous families and communities in service planning and governance can also support the ability of the service to respond to the needs of the community and contribute to improving children's outcomes (OECD, 2017).
Cultural programming involves a focus on maintaining a strong sense of cultural identity and the respect for and incorporation of traditional cultural practices. It may entail including native languages and traditional practices such as oral storytelling in the program. Such pedagogical approaches can enrich children's learning and support cultural continuity (Azpitarte et al., 2016; Best Start Resource Centre, 2010; Hoover, 1992; Secretariat of National Aboriginal and Islander Child Care, 2012) and have been shown to promote child development and resilience among indigenous children (Lowell et al., 2018). They can also counter racism and the ‘soft bigotry’ of low expectations for indigenous children (Sarra, 2014) and have the potential to reverse the impact of assimilationist practices as seen, for example, in the revival of the native Mohawk language as a result of concerted community efforts to teach the younger generations in Kahnawake, Quebec (Hoover, 1992).
Research, as well as programs, should be guided by indigenous principles and frameworks. Research has been responsible for harming indigenous people or communities, further exacerbating the effects of colonisation, disadvantage and racism (National Congress of American Indians Policy Research, 2009; Smith, 1999). As a result, frameworks and published principles have been developed to provide guidance in relation to conducting research and evaluation with and about indigenous communities (Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS), 2012; Fisher, 2012; Government of Canada, 2014; Muir & Dean, 2017; National Congress of American Indians Policy Research, 2009; National Health and Medical Research Council, 2018). These frameworks and principles suggest that research with and about indigenous people should be driven by concerns and priorities identified by indigenous community members themselves. It should involve oversight and leadership from indigenous people and offer short- and long-term benefits to the community. This may include immediate benefits to participants as well as longer-term benefits by generating findings pertaining to the key issue of concern. There is little information about how widely these frameworks and principles have been applied, particularly in ECEC research.
The current review was driven by our interest in identifying and learning from ECEC services or programs designed specifically to support indigenous children's learning and development. It was conducted alongside a community-driven evaluation of a newly established ECEC program for Aboriginal children in the Northern Territory of Australia which was designed to provide centre-based ECEC for children with a strong focus on family engagement. The research team was led by an Australian Aboriginal scholar.
While there is some evidence of effective programs to support language and development for indigenous children in the home environment and at school, there appeared to be little in the international literature documenting successful ECEC programs with a focus on indigenous children, and even fewer rigorous studies evaluating these programs (Bowes & Grace, 2014; Castagno & Brayboy, 2008; Goldstein, 2017; Harrison, Goldfeld, Metcalfe, & Moore, 2012; Kemp et al., 2018).
The primary aim of the review was to identify research that reported programs directed toward achieving successful learning and development outcomes in ECEC settings, globally, specifically for indigenous children (0–6 years of age). We defined ECEC as the provision of care and education during the day for children aged from birth to six years who are not yet at school. Our definition of successful outcomes was deliberately broad and included any improvements in children's health, learning, development or wellbeing. An additional aim of the review included identifying key features of the programs with reference to the literature on principles and practices in ECEC for indigenous children, as well as how acceptable and appropriate the programs were to the community and cultural context. A final aim was to identify the research methodologies used, including identifying whether the research methodologies were underpinned by indigenous cultural frameworks or guidelines.
Section snippets
Literature search
A systematic review of peer-reviewed publications and grey literature on programs targeting indigenous children globally in early childhood education settings was conducted. The review utilised a rapid evidence assessment (REA) methodology and has been documented with reference to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement (Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, Altman, & The PRISMA Group, 2009). Methods of data collection and inclusion criteria were
Results
Twelve papers on 11 programs were included in the review. Two papers reported the same program, with outcomes reported for overlapping but distinct populations (Benzies, Tough, Edwards, Mychasiuk, & Donnelly, 2011; Mughal, Ginn, Perry, & Benzies, 2016).3
Discussion
We aimed to systematically review publications that reported on programs designed to achieve successful learning and development outcomes in ECEC settings for indigenous children globally. Among the 12 papers and 11 programs identified there was a wide variety of study designs and programs. Overall, the small number of studies and programs identified indicate a need for greater investment in programs and associated research in this field.
Conclusion
Effective early childhood education programs targeting indigenous children's learning, development or wellbeing have the potential to improve children's language outcomes as well as their development and school readiness, thus assist in counteracting the ongoing effects of colonialism. This systematic review of international literature sought to locate effective ECEC programs for indigenous children and identify key features of each program and how acceptable they were to the community.
The
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Catriona Elek: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, Project administration. Lina Gubhaju: Validation, Writing - review & editing. Catherine Lloyd-Johnsen: Software, Validation, Writing - review & editing. Sandra Eades: Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition. Sharon Goldfeld: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition.
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