Quantifying the quality loss and resource efficiency of recycling by means of exergy analysis
Introduction
Life Cycle Impact Assessment of the average passenger vehicle of the Netherlands has been previously performed [1], with emphasis on the current dismantling and recycling practice in the Netherlands. According to the Eco-indicator 99 (EI99) [2], the largest environmental impact of the passenger vehicle's life cycle occurs in the use phase – over 90% – due to the combustion and depletion of fossil fuels. Also, in the other life cycle phases, the use of fossil fuels is the dominant impact, even for the production phase. Resource depletion due to the use of the materials employed in the vehicle causes a comparatively lower environmental impact, namely due to the high recovery rate and efficiency of the metallurgical recycling, that accounts for about 30% the total impacts of the materials. Therefore, the automotive industry has been making efforts to reduce vehicle weight as a way to reduce fuel consumption and hence emissions. The use of lightweight materials can contribute to a significant weight reduction as they replace traditionally used heavier materials. There is a tendency to use more polymers, aluminium, magnesium and various composite materials. Other attempts to reduce vehicle weight include considering the use of newly developed ultra-strong steel alloys in a different body design, as is the case of the ULSAB [1].
Lightweight metals are recyclable and have relatively high prices in the scrap markets, but other lightweight materials such as polymers and composites represent a challenge for the recycling industry. Their recycling is economically unattractive, as a satisfactory recycling technology has not yet been developed [3]. When a mixture of all these materials is present in the End-of-Life Vehicle (ELV), recycling becomes even more complex and costly. During shredding, the joints between the different materials are not completely liberated, resulting in contamination of the recovered streams [4]. In many cases, such contaminations cause the recycled material to lose its properties or to be downgraded and therefore cannot be used for the original applications. As a consequence large quantities of materials are buried in landfills. The EU target of recycling is 85% on a mass basis. However, the quality decrease of the material is not taken into account. This has been addressed by Reuter et al. [5], where they investigated the fundamental limits of recycling by developing recycling models for ELV. Furthermore, these models are being applied to argue recycling legislation that is reflected in an EU stakeholder report to the EU commission [6]. In general, the materials lose quality with each step of recycling. A common remedy is to add high purity primary resources during recycling to dilute the undesired contaminations and thereby to bring the material back to a higher quality. This is necessary because the contaminants cannot be removed because of thermodynamic constraints of the current process routes. These quality losses are not taken into account in the weight-based recovery targets established by the European ELV legislation, because the quality degradation cannot be translated by mass measures alone. Additionally, the recovery targets do not include the downstream recycling processes required to bring the materials back to the resource cycles. In the present work, the quality of recycling streams is quantified by exergy, which also demonstrates the efficiency of resource use, in the case of a concept light car. Various scenarios for dilution of recycled streams are assessed by this thermodynamic life cycle methodology.
Section snippets
How good is LCA?
Based on the cradle to grave principle, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) may currently be used in assessing the sustainability of different technological options. Nevertheless, there is one major bottleneck in the current methodologies. The quality losses during recycling cannot be properly described by current LCAs. These methodologies model the resource flows as parallel to each other and account for recovery of materials during recycling as equivalent with the same quality. But in reality, the
Exergetic Life Cycle Assessment
A more recent approach in order to assess the sustainability of technological options is thermodynamic life-cycle approach. Whereas, the first law states that energy can neither disappear nor be generated, the second law says that real processes result in a loss of energy which can be transformed into work due to generation of entropy. This available energy is called exergy or availability. The thermodynamic analysis of a life cycle shows a cumulative loss of exergy due to the generation of
Case study
To illustrate the effect of contaminations on the exergy content of recycled materials, a concept car (DutchEVO) was selected. The DutchEVO is a lightweight passenger concept car, with a weight of about 441 kg and diesel engine with consumption of 2.6 l/100 km. The design and materials' choices are still under development [14]. The material composition is shown in Table 1.
The DutchEVO is considered to have an End-of-Life processing according to the current ELV treatment in the Netherlands where
Exergy calculations
The weights of various materials in DutchEVO case which goes to the shredder, recycling and landfill have been calculated (Table 3). The amounts of liberated and not liberated material in the scrap coming after the shredder have been calculated by modelling of the comminution-liberation phenomena [15], which presents the amount of output materials in five categories: Aluminium cast (Alc), Aluminium wrought (Alw), Copper (Cu), Ferrous (Fe) and Rest (rest).
The industrial stream after the stage of
Conclusion
Recycling is a major component in closing the cycle between industrial products and the environment. Actually, End-of-Life legislation is designed to accomplish this purpose and set targets for the recycling rate of discarded products. The EU legislation, for example, requires 85% of cars to be recycled [16], however, recycling can create streams with a lower quality which are un-economical to recycle partially due to the limitations of thermodynamics, which makes refining difficult.
Acknowledgment
The financial support from Commonwealth Industrial and Research Organization (CSIRO), Division of Minerals (Australia) and Delft University of Technology (The Netherlands) is acknowledged in accomplishing the present work.
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