Radiation-induced point- and cluster-related defects with strong impact on damage properties of silicon detectors
Introduction
One of the most challenging applications for silicon detectors arises from their use in the inner tracking region of forthcoming colliding beam experiments as, e.g. Large Hadron Collider (LHC at the European research center CERN) and especially its planned upgrade (S-LHC), the International Linear Collider (ILC), or high-brilliance photon sources like the European XFEL foreseen also for the next decade [1], [2], [3]. Segmented silicon sensors (micro-strip and pixel devices) are at present the most precise electronic tracking detectors in high-energy physics experiments (HEP). This paper addresses the understanding of radiation damage effects resulting from the non-ionizing energy loss (NIEL) leading to displacement damage in the silicon bulk. Surface- and interface-related effects caused by ionization are on the other hand of considerable importance only for applications in environments with high X-ray doses (as e.g. in the European XFEL), a topic not addressed here.
For the S-LHC the detectors closest to the beam have to perform at hadron fluences up to several 1016 cm−2 under complex, long-term operation scenarios [4], [5], [6]. The limitations for their practical application in the hadron colliders are caused by irradiation-induced defects leading to changes in the effective doping concentration (Neff) full depletion voltage (Vdep), the reverse current at the depletion voltage (Idep) and the degradation in the charge collection efficiency (CCE) [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14]. These device properties are subject to changes not only during irradiation but also during beam-off periods. Especially the long-term annealing effects in Neff increase the initial depletion voltage and therefore they are of extreme importance envisioning extended operational periods of several years. In order to avoid a non-tolerable increase in the depletion voltage, the detectors have to be cooled not only during operation but also for the beam-off periods throughout the entire lifetime of the experiments. It would be of considerable importance if this cold storage could be avoided. One encouraging result for improving the radiation tolerance was obtained by the CERN-RD48 collaboration by performing an oxygen enrichment of float-zone (FZ) wafers used for detector fabrication. This defect engineering attempt was motivated by the assumption that a large O-concentration would inhibit the formation of the V2O-defect thought to be the main reason for the observed change in the effective doping. A cost effective realization of oxygen enrichment up to several 1017 cm−3 was achieved by an in-diffusion of oxygen from the Si–SiO2 interface (during treatments at high temperatures) after wafer oxidation. This procedure is called the DOFZ process (Diffusion Oxygenated Float Zone) and its main benefit is a considerable reduction in damage effects after gamma and charged hadron irradiation [15], [16], [17], [18]. In contrast to charged hadron and γ-irradiation, neutron damage seems to be less dependent on the O-concentration. Although the obtained increase in the radiation tolerance may be sufficient to meet the requirements for LHC, the DOFZ process cannot be a solution for the much more demanding S-LHC application because of the intolerable increase in the depletion voltage up to more than 1000 V and the decrease in the charge collection efficiency (CCE) below the necessary threshold for the readout electronics. Therefore, further efforts for proper defect (and device) engineering leading to a radiation tolerance above the present level are indispensable.
Any promising attempt for radiation hardening of the material as well as improvements by modifying the detector processing will rely on a thorough knowledge of the generation of electrically active defects, which are responsible for the observed changes in the device properties at their operating temperature. This goal is addressed in our work focusing on a detailed investigation of specific radiation-induced defects (point- and cluster-related) and their direct correlation with device performance parameters. Pion-induced damage, dominating in the innermost layers of the tracking area, will result from both isolated point defects (mainly due to Coulomb interactions) and densely packed displacement regions (clusters) caused by energetic recoils from hadron reactions. A separation of both components can be best undertaken by studying damage caused by γ-irradiation (point defects) compared to neutron-induced damage (clustered displacements), while the mixture of both as envisioned in pion damage can be represented by studying the effects after high energetic proton irradiation. In addition several low-MeV electron irradiations proved to be useful for understanding the bridge between pure point defect-related and cluster-dominated defects.
Section snippets
Experimental details and techniques
Several kinds of n-type silicon material, presently discussed as candidates foreseen for use at S-LHC, have been investigated for this purpose:
Float-zone silicon FZ, produced by Wacker Siltronic [19], orientation 〈1 1 1〉, 300 μm thick, resistivity 3–4 kΩ cm, effective doping concentration Nd∼1012 cm−3. The standard processed p+-n silicon diodes (labeled as STFZ) have an oxygen content of [O]<1016 cm−3. O-enriched diodes (labeled as DOFZ) were obtained using an in-diffusion of oxygen from the Si–SiO2
Defect properties and detector performance
Many electrically active defects, induced by irradiation, are detected by DLTS and TSC experiments. Most of them (VO, V2, Ci, CiOi, CiCs, IO2) were already investigated in detail and no correlation with the “macroscopic” behavior of the diodes could be established [35], [36], [37], [38], [39], [40], [41], [42], [43], [44], [45], [46]. The main characteristics of defects, from the electrical point of view, are the emission rates of carriers in the conduction and valence bands given by
Point defects, predominantly after γ-irradiation
Knowing the already huge efforts spent on investigating defects after hadron irradiation, with no real success in finding the defects responsible for the detector deterioration, we have decided to start our investigations with the simplest case, i.e. in situations where only point defects are generated. This was achieved by performing irradiation with 60Co-γ rays.
The diodes used for these investigations were processed on high-resistivity silicon oxygen lean (STFZ) and oxygenated (DOFZ) material
Defect studies after hadron irradiation
Contrary to low energetic particles, primarily electrons as secondary particles after γ-irradiation (photo- and Compton-effect), producing mainly point defects, more energetic particles, especially hadrons (pions, protons, neutrons or heavy ions) and to some extent also larger energy electrons (see Section 6) may lead to a cascade of many successive displacements, resulting in the formation of a large diversity of extended defects as densely packed conglomerates (“clusters”) of vacancies and
Studies after electron irradiation
As discussed in Section 2, irradiations with several MeV electrons should already result in the generation of cluster-related defects as seen after hadron irradiations but depending on the energy the ratio between cluster and point defects will vary. In order to test this assumption we reinvestigated some TSC measurements after 6 and 15 MeV electron irradiation. The spectra as seen directly after irradiation (no annealing performed in this case) are shown in Fig. 14a (6 MeV electron irradiation
Summary
Future colliding beam experiments at, e.g. the S-LHC with hadron fluences up to several 1016 cm−2 in the innermost layers of the tracking area will place an unprecedented challenge for the radiation tolerance of silicon sensors not yet met by present day devices. Improvements have been shown to be possible by certain modifications of the silicon material, process technology and operational conditions. But success oriented endeavors need to be based on a detailed understanding of the damage
Acknowledgements
This work was carried out in the frame of the CERN-RD50 collaboration and funded partly by the CiS Hamburg Project under Contract no. SSD 0517/03/05, the BMBF under Contract no. 05HC6GU1 and by the Romanian Ministry of Education and Research under the Core Program, contract 45N/2009. We gratefully thank E. Nossarzewska at ITME, Warsaw, for her professional work in preparing the EPI-diodes and performing the spreading resistance measurements. Likewise the help of A. Barcz at ITE, Warsaw, was
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