Development of a scale to assess the meditation experience
Introduction
Meditation, which may be defined as the “intentional self-regulation of attention from moment to moment” (Kabat-Zinn, 1982, p. 33) has become increasingly popular, both to promote wellbeing and to treat specific medical and psychological problems. There has been a trend to de-emphasize the religious/spiritual dimensions of practice and to focus on the physiological and psychological effects of meditation.
Meditation techniques may be divided into two broad categories: those with an emphasis on (a) concentration (e.g. Transcendental Meditation) and (b) mindfulness (e.g. vipassana and mindfulness-based stress reduction). Concentration-based approaches involve focusing attention on a particular stimulus, such as a mantra, sound, object or sensation. Mindfulness meditation techniques emphasize non-judgemental attention to constantly changing internal (bodily sensations, cognitions, perceptions, and emotions) and external (sights and sounds) stimuli as they arise. Mindfulness may be viewed as a multifaceted, naturally occurring characteristic, with some facets more greatly affected by meditation than others (Baer, Smith, & Allen, 2004; Brown & Ryan, 2003).
Meditation has been shown to have beneficial physiological, cognitive and behavioural effects (Cahn and Polich, 2006, Vaitl et al., 2005). The cognitive aspects of meditation may underlie some clinical applications, with increased awareness bringing about improved self-management through changes in habitual cognition and patterns of responding (Wenk-Sormaz, 2005). Meditation-based interventions may help alleviate health problems and improve psychological functioning (Kabat-Zinn et al., 1986, Teasdale et al., 1995).
Meditation is a complex, multifaceted intervention with specific and non-specific effects. It is difficult to standardise, quantify, authenticate and research (Caspi & Burleson, 2005). Meditation practices vary and may produce different physiological and psychological effects, complicating comparisons across studies (Gillani & Smith, 2001). Meditators vary widely in their subjective reports and how rapidly they experience effects. A common description is that of a very relaxed but alert state, while some meditators have mystical experiences that are difficult to describe (Osis, Bokert, & Carlson, 1973). In addition, data from inexperienced practitioners may not reflect the experiences of longer-term meditators (Goleman, 1978–1979). A significant factor in continued practice is participant reaction to the intervention and whether they feel that meditation is effective in daily life (Kabat-Zinn et al., 1986). Several research studies have involved the use of questionnaires to explore the meditation experience (Brown and Engler, 1980, Kohr, 1977–1978; Maliszewski et al., 1981, Osis et al., 1973, Piron, 2001), although these have not been widely used or validated.
A number of mindfulness measures have been developed, including The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) (Brown & Ryan, 2003), The Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI) (Buchheld, Grossman, & Walach, 2001) and The Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS) (Baer et al., 2004). These measures generally examine mindfulness without reference to meditation and have been criticized for failing to cover all facets of the construct (Walach, Buchheld, Buttenmuller, Kleinknecht, & Schmidt, 2006) and for not including other aspects of meditation, including the physical and the spiritual. History traditionally links meditation with the concept of a spiritual reality larger but inclusive of the personal self. Kabat-Zinn (2003) notes that meditation is concerned with cultivation of awareness, insight, and compassion, yet these concepts are not often the focus of research.
They may be incorporated by examining the psychological and phenomenological changes that occur during meditation and in everyday life. This may help to understand processes and links to psychological symptoms and wellbeing (Roemer & Orsillo, 2003). Standardized measurement of the impact of meditation may facilitate comparisons across studies, aid teaching and assessment of change over time. As the quality of the meditation experience may be more important than quantity in achieving beneficial effects, there is a need to assess quality of meditation, rather than merely compliance.
The aim of this study was to develop a scale to assess the cognitive, physical, emotional, and spiritual effects of meditation both during meditation and in everyday life. This is in contrast to most currently available scales which tend to focus on mindfulness alone. This paper describes the development of the Effects of Meditation scale (EOM), including the creation of the item pool, administration, scale evaluation and refinement.
Section snippets
Item development
In the initial construction of the EOM scale, potential items were drawn from five main sources:
- (a)
an unvalidated questionnaire used by an experienced meditation teacher;
- (b)
a review of the literature of different meditation traditions;
- (c)
existing meditation-related scales;
- (d)
interviews with expert meditators and teachers;
- (e)
an open-ended questionnaire distributed at a meditation forum.
The proposed scale was divided into two main sections: Effects of Meditation-During Meditation (EOM-DM) and Effects of
Exploratory factor analysis of the EOM scale
The factorability of the data for both scales was supported by highly significant Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity tests and Kaiser Meyer Olkin test of sampling adequacy values exceeding the minimum recommended value of .60 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007) (EOM-DM scale: .85, EOM-EL scale: .95). To enhance the reliability and efficiency of the scales, four items were removed from the EOM-DM item pool and three from the EOM-EL pool because of extreme mean scores, high skewness values (above 1) or a
Discussion
The purpose of this study was the development and initial validation of a scale to broadly assess the effects of meditation. While further scale evaluation and refinement are needed, the psychometric evidence presented suggests that the EOM set of scales may be a useful tool for the assessment of meditation, both during the experience and in everyday life.
The proposed scale was divided into two main sections: Experiences During Meditation (EOM-DM) and Effects of Meditation in Everyday Life
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