Original researchSuper-resolution fluorescence imaging to study cardiac biophysics: α-actinin distribution and Z-disk topologies in optically thick cardiac tissue slices
Introduction
Progress in cardiac biophysics has often been closely linked with methodological advances, in particular with improvements in fluorescence imaging techniques. The introduction of fluorescent Ca2+ indicators with suitable affinity and rapid kinetics (Grynkiewicz et al., 1985) has contributed greatly to the study of calcium fluxes. To date such studies are arguably most advanced in muscle, and perhaps specifically in cardiac muscle. Similarly, the insight that the view of the cardiac myocyte cytosol as a well-stirred compartment in which Ca2+ is essentially uniform is problematic had first been suggested on mostly theoretical grounds (Stern, 1992) but the crucial breakthrough was the discovery of microscopic Ca2+ release events (Cheng et al., 1993). The technical advancement that enabled this discovery was the introduction of confocal microscopy to biomedical research as well as the availability of indicators from the Fluo-3 family (Minta et al., 1989) which are distinguished by a very large modulation of fluorescence with increasing Ca2+ (albeit at the cost of not being ratiometric). The resulting understanding has now led to a fairly well-developed theory of local control (for a review, see e.g. (Cannell and Kong, 2011)) which emphasizes the role of gradients in Ca2+ throughout the cell and the existence of local signalling domains. Such local control enables the cardiac muscle cell to work as a graded system based on calcium-induced calcium release (Fabiato, 1983) that is both robust and exhibits high amplification of a trans-sarcomeric trigger Ca2+ influx to allow intricate control of the cardiac Ca2+ transient, the primary modulator of cardiac contractility at the cellular level.
The local control view of cardiac EC coupling recognises the primary importance of spatial organisation and reveals the important role of the dyadic junctions between the surface membrane (and its extensions, the transverse (t-) tubules) and the membranes of the terminal sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). At junctions the membranes oppose each other and the gap is only ∼15 nm in width (Fawcett and McNutt, 1969) which is critical to confining the signalling between surface L-type Ca2+ channels and ryanodine receptors (RyRs) which are the SR Ca2+ release channels. In the junctional signalling space Ca2+ concentration reaches peak levels that are several orders of magnitude higher than in the bulk cytosol. Junctions may also be small in lateral extent, electron tomography suggests complex 3D arrangements with few tens of nanometre extent along the shorter axes (Hayashi et al., 2009). In addition, the t-tubules themselves are sub-resolution in diameter (∼50–250 nm in the rat (Soeller and Cannell, 1999)) and the clusters of RyRs that are thought to underlie the microscopic Ca2+ sparks may be as small as ∼30 nm along their shortest axis (Baddeley et al., 2009, Hayashi et al., 2009) (but large clusters can reach micrometer sizes). All these structures that are part of the cardiac Ca2+ local signalling apparatus are “nano-objects” and generally not resolved by diffraction-limited imaging approaches, such as confocal microscopy (with a “best” lateral resolution of ∼200–250 nm). Accordingly there has been considerable interest in utilizing higher resolution methods, ideally compatible with fluorescence stains and indicators due to their high contrast and specificity.
This gap in our imaging capabilities has recently been filled with the advent of so called optical super-resolution microscopy, of which there are a number of different ‘flavours’. STED (or stimulated emission depletion) microscopy, uses a saturable fluorescence depletion effect to selectively darken all molecules but those within the centre of a laser spot that is scanned through the sample similar to confocal microscopy (Hell and Wichmann, 1994). Single molecule localisation microscopy, by contrast, is a widefield technique which relies on darkening all but a few fluorophores at any given time (Betzig et al., 2006, Hess et al., 2006, Rust et al., 2006). This allows the few fluorophores that are “bright” to be observed as isolated, diffraction limited spots whose centre can be localised with an accuracy that is only limited by the number of photons that we can collect (and the brightness of the background). By detecting and localising subsets of fluorochromes through typically thousands of frames a composite image can be constructed and rendered into a format familiar to conventional fluorescence micrographs using algorithms to estimate local marker density (Baddeley et al., 2010). These methods are known under a variety of acronyms such as PALM, fPALM, STORM etc and achieve lateral resolutions of ∼20–30 nm. In one variation, known as dSTORM (direct STORM (Heilemann et al., 2008)), conventional fluorochromes become photoswitchable under suitable conditions and this approach is particularly practical as normal imaging and labelling protocols can be followed to a large extent. We have previously extended dSTORM for multi-colour 3D super-resolution imaging, a method that we termed d4STORM (Baddeley et al., 2011). Several studies employing super-resolution imaging for the study of cardiac myocytes have clearly demonstrated its utility for studies of cardiac biophysics which have recently been reviewed (Soeller and Baddeley, 2013). An important structural component of cardiac myocytes (and other striated muscle cells) are the boundaries of sarcomeres called Z-lines (as they appear as lines in 2D micrographs) or, taking the full 3D structure of myofibrills into account, Z-disks, as in 3D the sarcomere boundaries are thin disks coinciding with the cross-section of myofibrillar bundles. A number of protein involved in excitation-contraction (EC) coupling are located around the edges of Z-disks such as RyRs and other junctional proteins (Jayasinghe et al., 2009, Soeller et al., 2007) as well as the t-tubules that are largely found in close proximity to the edges of myofibrillar Z-disks. One protein that is greatly concentrated within Z-disks and serves as a distinctive Z-disk marker is α-actinin. α-actinin anchors thin filaments at the Z-line and interactions with the sarcomeric protein titin and actin in thin filaments are critical for the development and maintenance of normal sarcomeric structure (Sjöblom et al., 2008).
We have previously demonstrated the use of super-resolution microscopy to achieve improved contrast and resolution in optically thick tissue sections (Baddeley et al., 2011). In the present study we provide a more extended study of tissue-section based dSTORM imaging to resolve the details of myofibrillar Z-disks and the distribution of the protein α-actinin. Detailed comparison of super-resolution images with both diffraction-limited widefield and confocal data as well as electron micrographs reveals the resolution and associated contrast improvement but also emphasizes remaining limitations. Our results support the use of super-resolution microscopy for nanoscale investigations of structures and protein distributions that underlie the biophysics of cardiac muscle, in particular Ca2+ handling and production of force.
Section snippets
Tissue preparation
All use of rats and rat tissue was approved by the Auckland University ethics committee prior to experimentation. Healthy adult Wistar rats in the weight range of 250–300 g were sacrificed by lethal injection of sodium pentabarbitone followed by cervical dislocation. The heart was removed and mounted on a Langendorff perfusion apparatus and perfused with 2% paraformaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Upon removal from the perfusion setup, the atria were first removed and the
Results
α-actinin is an actin-binding protein that is present in high density at the boundaries between sarcomeres, the Z-disks. It therefore is a prominent marker of myofibrillar bundle structure when viewed in cross-section. This can be seen in Fig. 1 which shows transverse (cross-sectional) views of rat cardiac ventricular myocytes in three different imaging modalities. In a thin section electron micrograph myofibrils (and mitochondria) can be readily identified in cross-section (Fig. 1A). The
Super-resolution imaging of alpha-actinin in Z-disks of cardiac myocytes
In this study we have focused on the use of dSTORM based tissue imaging of α-actinin. dSTORM, as one of the single-molecule localisation based super-resolution approaches relies on the detection of fluorescence bursts from single (or small groups of) molecules. The achievement of sufficient contrast to reliably detect these flashes or “blinks” in optically thick tissue sections is a challenge but can be overcome in a number of ways. Here we used a highly inclined illumination geometry (HILO, (
Conclusion
The recent introduction of practical super-resolution imaging techniques has enabled the observation of features of cardiac myocytes that were previously difficult to assess with conventional techniques. This includes features on the scale between ∼30 nm and 200 nm where cardiac myocytes have a rich subcellular structure including RyR clusters, t-tubules and details of their sarcomeric makeup. Here we demonstrated this with data on α-actinin and the structure of Z-disks. There is a wealth of
Editors’ note
Please see also related communications in this issue by Wang et al. (2014) and Vostarek et al. (2014).
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. Masa Hoshijima, UCSD, for providing a slice of a mouse myocyte EM tomogram. Support by the Marsden Fund, the Health Research Council, the Lottery Health Board and The Human Frontier Science Program are gratefully acknowledged.
References (56)
- et al.
Myocyte cell loss and myocyte hypertrophy in the aging rat heart
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.
(1986) - et al.
MLP-deficient mice exhibit a disruption of cardiac cytoarchitectural organization, dilated cardiomyopathy, and heart failure
Cell
(1997) - et al.
Superresolution imaging of chemical synapses in the brain
Neuron
(2010) - et al.
A new generation of Ca2+ indicators with greatly improved fluorescence properties
J. Biol. Chem.
(1985) - et al.
Novel structures for α-actinin:F-actin interactions and their implications for actin–membrane attachment and tension sensing in the cytoskeleton
J. Mol. Biol.
(2007) - et al.
Tcap gene mutations in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and dilated cardiomyopathy
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.
(2004) - et al.
Ultra-high resolution imaging by fluorescence photoactivation localization microscopy
Biophys. J.
(2006) - et al.
Organization of ryanodine receptors, transverse tubules, and sodium-calcium exchanger in rat myocytes
Biophys. J.
(2009) - et al.
The cardiac mechanical stretch sensor machinery involves a Z disc complex that is defective in a subset of human dilated cardiomyopathy
Cell
(2002) - et al.
Transform-based backprojection for volume reconstruction of large format electron microscope tilt series
J. Struct. Biol.
(2006)