Elsevier

Planetary and Space Science

Volume 206, 15 October 2021, 105303
Planetary and Space Science

Dynamics of recent landslides (<20 My) on Mars: Insights from high-resolution topography on Earth and Mars and numerical modelling

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2021.105303Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Three Amazonian martian landslides have similarities with terrestrial analogues.

  • Landslides' morphology suggests two dynamics and formation mechanisms.

  • Liquid water may be implied on recent martian landslide formation as for mudflows on Earth.

  • Young landslide could give key information on recent martian climate and/or tectonics.

Abstract

Landslides are common features found on steep slopes on Mars and the role of water in their formation is an open question. Our study focuses on three young martian landslides whose mechanism of formation is unknown and knowing their formation mechanism could give us key information on recent martian climate and/or tectonics. They are less than 5 ​km long, and formed during the Late Amazonian Epoch, with an age <20 ​Ma when Mars is thought to have had a hyperarid climate. To better understand the dynamics and formation mechanism of these landslides, we combine two approaches: geomorphic comparison between martian and terrestrial landslides using remote sensing data from the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) and the Colour and Stereo Surface Imaging System (CaSSIS), and numerical modelling using a dry granular flow dynamical model. Our geomorphic analysis revealed two contrasting morphologies suggesting differing dynamics and formation mechanisms. Two of the three martian landslides resemble terrestrial rockslides, while the third is more akin to terrestrial mudslides. The numerical modelling, although not fully conclusive, broadly supports our interpretations from the morphological observations. We suggest that the two landslides resembling terrestrial rockslides could have been triggered by shaking by meteorite impact or marsquakes in the absence of water. On the contrary, we suggest liquid water (originating from ground-ice melted by geothermal heat flux) may have been involved in the initiation of the landslide resembling a terrestrial mudslide. Our results show the value of using morphological comparison between martian and terrestrial landslides combined with numerical modelling to inform the hypotheses of landslide-formation on Mars where in situ analysis is not usually possible.

Introduction

Large landslides were first observed on Mars in 1972 by the Mariner 9 probe, in Valles Marineris (Sharp, 1973). This region is characterised by a succession of steep-sided canyons, trending East-West over ~4000 ​km (Quantin et al., 2004a; Lucas et al., 2011; Brunetti et al., 2014; Watkins et al., 2015), with more than 1400 landslides (Crosta et al., 2018) formed between Hesperian (3.5 ​Ga) and Late Amazonian (50 ​Ma) (Quantin et al., 2004b). Several studies have investigated the morphology of the large landslides in Valles Marineris (Lucchitta, 1979; Quantin et al., 2004a; Soukhovitskaya and Manga, 2006; Brunetti et al., 2014; Crosta et al., 2018), which are characterised by scarps up to several kilometres wide and kilometre-deep, broad fan-shaped deposits, often wider than the scars from which they originated. The role that water may have played in these landslides is the main preocupation of these previous works and is important to understand because these landslides have occurred throughout Hesperian to Late Amazonian epochs so can provide information on Mars’ climate through time. Mass movements can also give information on the tectonic history of a planetary body (Quantin et al., 2004b). The majority of previous studies of martian landslides have examined landslides with volumes greater than 1010 ​m3, which is larger than landslides most commonly found on Earth. This lack of a direct terrestrial analogue is one of the reasons that the triggering and dynamics of these large landslides is still a subject of active research and the role of water and/or active tectonics is unclear.

To our knowledge, no studies have specifically focussed on understanding ‘small’ martian landslides with a volume less than 1010 ​m3, which have a similar scale to landslides that can be found on Earth. These common terrestrial landslides are well-studied and their formation mechanisms are better understood than that of their larger counterparts. This provides an opportunity to perform a comparative morphological study between terrestrial analogues and martian landslides without the need for scaling. We selected three relatively fresh, recent martian landslides (with potentially contrasting formation mechanisms), with the least influence of secondary processes on their surfaces (e.g., impact craters, aeolian features) and topographic data available, in order to increase the reliability and robustness of the comparative study. By identifying similar morphologies in the martian landslides and in terrestrial analogues, whose formation process is known, we can infer the processes that may have been at work on Mars.

In addition to this comparative morphological study, we use the thin-layer numerical code SHALTOP to simulate the landslide dynamics, assuming it is a dry granular flow. In spite of their simplifying assumptions and the uncertainty on initial and boundary conditions (see Section 2.3, and Delannay et al., 2017), thin-layer numerical models have previously been successful in reproducing the runout and approximate deposit morphology for a wide range of landslides on Earth and Mars. Using seismic data to reconstruct the dynamics of some terrestrial landslides, it was shown that thin-layer models can also reproduce these dynamics (Moretti et al., 2012, 2020; Levy et al., 2015; Yamada et al., 2016, 2018).

We therefore employ a double approach, using both morphological and numerical methods, to better constrain the mechanism of formation of these ‘small’ martian landslides and to understand their dynamics and hence, the potential role of liquid water and/or active tectonics.

First, in Section 2, we describe the data and the methods used to carry out this study, including the morphological analysis, age-estimation using crater size-frequency analysis and the numerical model used to carry out the simulations. In Section 3, we present the results from the morphological analysis, age estimation and numerical simulations. In Section 4 we first compare our results with those for other martian landslides presented in the literature, then discuss the potential emplacement mechanisms of the martian landslides and finally we assess the likelihood of the different hypotheses that could explain the formation of these three martian landslides.

Section snippets

Methodology

In this section, we elaborate the data and methods used to carry out the geomorphological analyses of the martian and terrestrial landslides. We also describe the crater counting method used to estimate the age of formation of martian landslides and then the method used to perform the numerical modelling.

Results

In this section we present the geomorphological results (Section 3.1), the age estimates (Section 3.2) and numerical modelling (Section 3.3). Section 3.1 is divided into two parts, the first concerning the description of the results for the martian landslides followed by a comparison to the terrestrial landslides.

Discussion

In the following sections, we will first discuss how the investigated landslides compare to other martian and terrestrial landslides, and then their likely emplacement mechanisms suggested by our geomorphic observations and numerical modelling. Finally, we propose different scenarios that could have led to the formation of these landslides.

Conclusions

We have studied three martian landslides using high-resolution images and digital elevation models, comparison with Earth analogues and numerical simulations. The aim is to deduce hypotheses of landslide formation on Mars where in situ analysis is generally not possible. Our results show the importance of using morphological comparison between martian and terrestrial landslides to identify key morphologies, combined with numerical modelling.

We estimate that these landslides are all very recent,

Author statement

A. Guimpier: Conceptualisation, Investigation, Writing – Original Draft; S. J. Conway: Conceptualisation, Supervision, Writing – Reviewing & Editing; A. Mangeney: Methodology, Supervision, Writing – Reviewing & Editing; A. Lucas: Resources, Writing – Reviewing & Editing; N. Mangold: Supervision, Writing – Reviewing & Editing; M. Peruzzetto: Software, Validation, Writing – Reviewing & Editing; M. Pajola: Writing – Reviewing & Editing; A. Lucchetti: Writing – Reviewing & Editing; G. Munaretto:

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to G. Stucky de Quay and another anonymous reviewer for improving the quality of the manuscript with their helpful feedback. We are also grateful to the editor A. Pio Rossi for his comments. S.J. Conway, N. Mangold and A. Guimpier are grateful for the support of the Programme National de Planétologie (PNP), the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES), the Groupement de Recherche Ecoulements Gravitaires et RIsques Naturels (EGRIN) and A. Mangeney for the ERC contract,

References (122)

  • W.K. Hartmann

    Martian cratering 8: isochron refinement and the chronology of Mars

    Icarus

    (2005)
  • T. Kneissl et al.

    Map-projection-independent crater size-frequency determination in GIS environments—new software tool for ArcGIS

    Planet. Space Sci.

    (2011)
  • M.A. Kreslavsky et al.

    Periods of active permafrost layer formation during the geological history of Mars: Implications for circum-polar and mid-latitude surface processes

    Planet. Space Sci., Mars Polar Process. Atmos. Surf. Interact.

    (2008)
  • J. Laskar et al.

    Long term evolution and chaotic diffusion of the insolation quantities of Mars

    Icarus

    (2004)
  • F. Legros

    The mobility of long-runout landslides

    Eng. Geol.

    (2002)
  • D.G. Masson et al.

    Slope failures on the flanks of the western Canary Islands

    Earth Sci. Rev.

    (2002)
  • G.G. Michael

    Planetary surface dating from crater size–frequency distribution measurements: multiple resurfacing episodes and differential isochron fitting

    Icarus

    (2013)
  • G.G. Michael et al.

    Planetary surface dating from crater size-frequency distribution measurements: Poisson timing analysis

    Icarus

    (2016)
  • G.G. Michael et al.

    Planetary surface dating from crater size–frequency distribution measurements: partial resurfacing events and statistical age uncertainty

    Earth Planet Sci. Lett.

    (2010)
  • G.G. Michael et al.

    Planetary surface dating from crater size–frequency distribution measurements: spatial randomness and clustering

    Icarus

    (2012)
  • J. Michalski et al.

    Analysis of phyllosilicate deposits in the Nili Fossae region of Mars: comparison of TES and OMEGA data

    Icarus

    (2010)
  • M. Pajola et al.

    The Simud–Tiu Valles hydrologic system: a multidisciplinary study of a possible site for future Mars on-site exploration

    Icarus

    (2016)
  • C. Quantin et al.

    Morphology and geometry of Valles Marineris landslides

    Planet. Space Sci.

    (2004)
  • C. Quantin et al.

    Ages of Valles Marineris (Mars) landslides and implications for canyon history

    Icarus

    (2004)
  • A.Z. Abotalib et al.

    A deep groundwater origin for recurring slope lineae on Mars

    Nat. Geosci.

    (2019)
  • A. Airo

    Landslide (Mars)

  • V.R. Baker et al.

    Ancient oceans, ice sheets and the hydrological cycle on Mars

    Nature

    (1991)
  • R.L. Baum et al.
    (2014)
  • J.-P. Bibring et al.

    Mars surface diversity as revealed by the OMEGA/Mars express observations

    Science

    (2005)
  • T.C. Blair et al.

    Grain-size and textural classification of coarse sedimentary particles

    J. Sediment. Res.

    (1999)
  • F. Bouchut et al.

    Gravity driven shallow water models for arbitrary topography

    Commun. Math. Sci.

    (2004)
  • M. Brunet et al.

    Numerical simulation of the 30–45 ka debris avalanche flow of Montagne Pelée volcano, Martinique: from volcano flank collapse to submarine emplacement

    Nat. Hazards

    (2017)
  • F.E.G. Butcher et al.

    Recent basal melting of a mid-latitude glacier on Mars

    J. Geophys. Res. Planets

    (2017)
  • J. Carter et al.

    Hydrous minerals on Mars as seen by the CRISM and OMEGA imaging spectrometers: updated global view

    J. Geophys. Res. Planets

    (2013)
  • R.J. Chandler

    Periglacial mudslides in Vestspitsbergen and their bearing on the origin of fossil ‘solifluction’ shears in low angled clay slopes

    Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol.

    (1972)
  • N.M. Coleman et al.

    Evidence that floodwaters filled and overflowed Capri Chasma

    Mars. Geophys. Res. Lett.

    (2007)
  • L. Comegna et al.

    The mechanics of mudslides as a cyclic undrained–drained process

    Landslides

    (2007)
  • S.J. Conway et al.

    Decameter thick remnant glacial ice deposits on Mars

    Geophys. Res. Lett.

    (2014)
  • J. Coquin et al.

    A paraglacial rock-slope failure origin for cirques: a case study from Northern Iceland

    Géomorphol. Relief Process. Environ

    (2019)
  • J. Corominas
    (1994)
  • F. Costard et al.

    formation of recent martian debris flows by melting of near-surface ground ice at high obliquity

    Science

    (2002)
  • G.B. Crosta et al.

    Introducing a new inventory of large martian landslides

    Earth Space Sci.

    (2018)
  • T. de Haas et al.

    Recent (Late Amazonian) enhanced backweathering rates on Mars: paracratering evidence from gully alcoves

    J. Geophys. Res. Planets

    (2015)
  • T. de Haas et al.

    Local late Amazonian boulder breakdown and denudation rate on Mars

    Geophys. Res. Lett.

    (2013)
  • R. Delannay et al.

    Granular and particle-laden flows: from laboratory experiments to field observations

    J. Phys. Appl. Phys.

    (2017)
  • B.L. Ehlmann et al.

    Subsurface water and clay mineral formation during the early history of Mars

    Nature

    (2011)
  • B.L. Ehlmann et al.

    Identification of hydrated silicate minerals on Mars using MRO-CRISM: geologic context near Nili Fossae and implications for aqueous alteration

    J. Geophys. Res.

    (2009)
  • C.I. Fassett et al.

    Fluvial sedimentary deposits on Mars: ancient deltas in a crater lake in the Nili Fossae region

    Geophys. Res. Lett.

    (2005)
  • P. Favreau et al.

    Numerical modeling of landquakes: landslide and seismic waves

    Geophys. Res. Lett.

    (2010)
  • E.D. Fernandez-Nieto et al.

    A multilayer shallow model for dry granular flows with the mu(I) -rheology: application to granular collapse on erodible beds

    J. Fluid Mech.

    (2016)
  • Cited by (10)

    • Pre-landslide topographic reconstruction in Baetis Chaos, mars using a CaSSIS Digital Elevation Model

      2022, Planetary and Space Science
      Citation Excerpt :

      This landslide's complex underlying topography consisting of a plateau, followed by a cliff and impact ejecta on the chaos floor is too complex to be accommodated by the semi-automatic reconstruction method. However, in case of a simpler underlying topography, such as a landslide located on a continuous smooth slope and without breaks in slope or significant underlying roughness, this method could be applied (Guimpier et al., 2021), hence generating reliable volume distributions. Moreover, this methodology has the advantage of being simple and quick to implement.

    • Modelling reconstruction and boulder size-frequency distribution of a young (&lt;5 Myr) landslide located in Simud Vallis floor, Mars

      2022, Icarus
      Citation Excerpt :

      We highlight that both the simulation reported in this paper, as well as the boulder SFD study do not analyse the triggering causes of the landslide, which is a difficult matter to identify and unambiguously prove (Crosta et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2019; Bishop et al., 2021). Indeed, as presented by Guimpier et al. (2021), both seismic shaking from a nearby meteorite impact, or from a crustal marsquake could have been triggers for this landslide, but other processes such as those related to thermal stress cannot be ruled out, either (Tesson et al., 2020). However, one could hypothesize as predisposing factor the presence of a structural weakness in the landslide area, as evidenced by the local irregularity of the mesa edge.

    • Simplified simulation of rock avalanches and subsequent debris flows with a single thin-layer model: Application to the Prêcheur river (Martinique, Lesser Antilles)

      2022, Engineering Geology
      Citation Excerpt :

      We only modify it slightly at the bottom of the cliff to remove patches of screes, that would otherwise lead to incorrect scree reservoir reconstruction for DF simulation (see Section 3.1.2). This is done in a similar manner to pre-collapse topography and scar reconstruction in (Guimpier et al., 2021). Screes are identified thanks to slope breaks and slope direction variations at the bottom of the cliff, and are then removed by modifying manually the 5 m contour lines of the 08/2018 DEM, using contour lines trends where the cliff is deprived of screes (see Supplementary Figure 1).

    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text