Safety and immunogenicity of the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine at 12 months of age, following one, two, or three doses of the 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in infancy
Introduction
Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of bacterial pneumonia in children worldwide. It is the leading vaccine preventable cause of serious infection in infants [1]. A recent review estimated that over 14 million episodes of serious pneumococcal disease occurred worldwide in the year 2000, with over 800,000 deaths in children under 5 years [2]. The case fatality rate is particularly high in infants less than 6 months old [3]. At least 48 serogroups comprising over 90 serotypes of pneumococcus have been identified [4]. Within serogroups, some serotypes cross-react immunologically, and in some cases this translates into cross-protection such as antibodies against 6B which provide cross-protection against 6A [5]. The association of particular serotypes with disease varies according to age, geography, and clinical presentation [6]. In general, the range of serotypes causing invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) in affluent countries like the United States and in Europe is relatively narrow and largely confined to the serotypes found in the 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV-7, Prevenar™, Wyeth Vaccines). In contrast, the range of serotypes causing disease in low-income countries is wider.
The 10-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine has recently been licensed in some countries, and a 13-valent vaccine is likely to be licensed by 2010. Some health authorities have decided or are considering a combination of an infant PCV-7 primary series with a booster of the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV-23) in the second year of life to address the limited serotype coverage offered by PCV-7. There have been several studies involving children in a number of countries using different pneumococcal conjugate formulations and schedules, comparing the immunogenicity of a PPV-23 or PCV-7 booster following a pneumococcal conjugate vaccine primary series. The majority of studies have shown that serotype-specific antibody concentrations are generally higher following PPV-23 than PCV-7 booster [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12]. The higher response may be due to the higher dose of pneumococcal polysaccharide in the PPV-23, compared to PCV-7, enhancing the stimulation of memory B cells or by stimulating a greater number of B cells overall [13]. Despite this, only pneumococcal conjugate vaccines provide mucosal immunity and have shown a reduction in nasopharyngeal (NP) carriage (NP carriage being an antecedent event for all pneumococcal disease) for conjugate serotypes, compared with unvaccinated infants [14], [15], [16] or toddlers [17], [18], [19]. In contrast, pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines have shown no effect on pneumococcal carriage [20], [21], [22], [23], [24]. Most studies evaluating the impact of pneumococcal polysaccharide immunization in the absence of additional PCV-7 in infants or children have not shown any impact on pneumococcal disease or carriage [25], [26], [27]
Data from Fiji shows that the 7 serotypes included in PCV-7, plus the cross reactive serotype 6A, would potentially cover 63.3% of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) cases in children under 5 years [28]. This coverage would potentially increase to 83% if the PPV-23 was used, and would increase to 87% if the new 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine produced by Wyeth Vaccines (which includes serotypes 1, 3, 5, 6A, 7F and 19A) was used, largely due to the inclusion of 6A which is not included in the PPV-23 [28]. The aim of this study was to find an optimal vaccination strategy suitable for resource poor countries in terms of serotype coverage, flexibility, and affordability. To address these issues, we undertook a Phase II vaccine trial in Fiji to document the safety, immunogenicity and impact on pneumococcal carriage of various pneumococcal vaccination regimens combining 1, 2, or 3 doses of PCV-7 in infancy. In order to broaden the serotype coverage, the additional benefit of a PPV-23 booster at 12 months of age was also assessed. Presented are the geometric mean serotype-specific IgG antibody concentrations (GMC) prior to and 2 weeks following the 12 month PPV-23, and at 17 months of age.
Section snippets
Study participants
The study was a single blind, open-label randomized Phase II vaccine trial undertaken in Suva, the capital of Fiji. Healthy infants aged between six and eight weeks were eligible for enrolment. Details of the selection criteria and the randomization procedure have been reported elsewhere [29]
The study was conducted and monitored according to Good Clinical Practice. It was approved by the Fiji National Research Ethics Review Committee and the University of Melbourne Human Research Ethics
Results
There were 552 infants enrolled in the study (Fig. 1) and the characteristics of the randomized infants have been described elsewhere (15). The 552 participants represent a consent rate of 30.5%, of which 10% had withdrawn by 12 months and 15% by 17 months of age. The commonest reason for withdrawal was relocation outside the study area. No participant was withdrawn due to a reaction to any of the vaccines. The 12-month PPV-23 was administered to 245 children with all groups having blood drawn
Discussion
This study has shown that 1, 2, or 3 doses of PCV-7 in infancy primed infants sufficiently elicit an excellent booster response to the PPV-23 at 12 months of age for all PCV-7 serotypes. Furthermore, there were good antibody responses to the 16 non-PCV-7 serotypes following PPV-23 at 12 months. The antibody concentrations for all 23 serotypes remained significantly higher at 17 months of age in the PPV-23 group compared to the group that had not received PPV-23.
In addition, this study has shown
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to sincerely thank all the FiPP staff and families participating in the study, the Fiji Ministry of Health, CWMH laboratory and paediatric department, and the many other people who contributed to the study including: Amanda O’Brien, Kathryn Bright, Amy Bin Chen, Timothy Gemetzis, Amy Auge, Katherine Gilbert, Evan Willis, Philip Greenwood, Beth Temple, Vanessa Johnston, Loretta Thorn, Porter Anderson, Brian Greenwood, George Siber, David Klein, Elizabeth Horigan, Farukh
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