Affordable housing through the low-income housing tax credit program and intimate partner violence-related homicide
Introduction
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a critical public health issue in the United States. Approximately 1 in 4 women and 1 in 10 men experience IPV in their lifetime and report a subsequent violence-related impact, such as an injury or post-traumatic stress (Smith et al., 2018). The most severe outcome of IPV is IPV-related homicide (Reckdenwald and Parker, 2012; Campbell et al., 2007). According to data from 35 states and the District of Columbia (D.C.), IPV is a contributing factor in 15% of homicides, with 7% of homicides among men and 42% of homicides among women being related to IPV (Petrosky et al., 2020). The magnitude and severity of IPV-related homicide in the U.S. emphasize the urgent need for programs and policies that can contribute to prevention efforts.
According to the exposure reduction hypothesis, IPV-related homicide typically occurs after prolonged violence in a relationship, and providing resources that allow those experiencing IPV to leave or minimize contact with their abusive partner can reduce opportunities for violence, thereby decreasing the risk for homicide (Reckdenwald and Parker, 2012; Dugan et al., 2003). One resource that is critical to facilitating exit from abusive relationships is housing (Baker et al., 2010). In 2019, the National Network to End Domestic Violence found that on a single day, there were more than 11,000 unmet requests for services to IPV programs in the U.S., 68% of which were for housing (National Network to End Domestic Violence, 2020). Qualitative studies consistently find that safe housing is one of the most pressing needs for those planning to leave an abusive relationship (Gezinski and Gonzalez-Pons, 2019). Many individuals experiencing IPV report being unable to leave, or being forced to return to, an abusive relationship because they cannot find safe, stable, affordable housing (O'Campo et al., 2016; Yu et al., 2020; Daoud et al., 2016; Clough et al., 2014), highlighting the potential for housing programs and policies to assist in mitigating IPV and preventing IPV-related homicide.
In addition to facilitating exit from abusive relationships, housing programs and policies may contribute to IPV prevention by reducing financial stress in intimate relationships. Prior research shows that indicators of financial stress, such as low income, unemployment, and material hardship, are consistently associated with an increased risk of IPV (Matjasko et al., 2013; Lucero et al., 2016; Golden et al., 2013; Capaldi et al., 2012). Specific to housing, previous research demonstrates associations between multiple measures of housing-specific financial stress, including difficulty affording rent and experiencing eviction or homelessness, with an increased risk of experiencing and perpetrating IPV (Black et al., 2011; Schwab-Reese et al., 2016). Some research suggests that financial problems related to housing are more strongly associated with the physical, social, and emotional manifestations of stress than financial problems related to other material hardships, like food insecurity, indicating that housing-specific financial stress may be a particularly important risk factor for IPV (Liu et al., 2014). Drawing from the Family Stress Model (Neppl et al., 2016), financial stress related to housing may burden the available coping resources in intimate relationships, contributing to escalating conflict and increasing the risk for IPV and IPV-related homicide.
The Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) program is the largest source of affordable housing in the U.S. Created under the Tax Reform Act of 1986, the LIHTC program provides a tax incentive to subsidize the construction and rehabilitation of rental housing for low-income populations (Matjasko et al., 2013; Lucero et al., 2016). Each year, the federal government allocates tax credits to states based on population size, with a minimum allocation to smaller states (Congressional Research Service, 2021; Payton Scally et al., 2018). State tax credit allocating agencies then award credits to developers through a competitive application process (Congressional Research Service, 2021; Payton Scally et al., 2018). Federal regulations ensure that LIHTC unit rent is affordable to households with incomes less than 40–60% of the area median income (Congressional Research Service, 2021; Payton Scally et al., 2018). LIHTC units are also eligible for housing vouchers and other state and federal subsidies, which can further reduce rent (Congressional Research Service, 2021; Payton Scally et al., 2018). Given the importance of housing for facilitating exit from abusive relationships (Reckdenwald and Parker, 2012; Dugan et al., 2003), and the role of housing-specific financial stress in the risk for IPV (Black et al., 2011; Schwab-Reese et al., 2016), it is possible that greater availability of affordable rental units through the LIHTC program is associated with decreases in IPV-related homicide.
Notably, even once successfully housed, individuals with a history of IPV often struggle to sustain housing due to high rent and limited financial resources, leaving many vulnerable to eviction and a forced to return to an abusive partner (Clough et al., 2014; Kofman, 2018; Thomas et al., 2020; Baker et al., 2003). The threat of eviction may also contribute to heightened stress and financial strain in intimate relationships (Willie et al., 2021), increasing the risk for IPV. In areas where eviction rates are particularly high, it is possible that increased availability of affordable housing, including through the LIHTC program, may offer additional protections against IPV-related homicide by providing sustainable housing options for those leaving abusive relationships and alleviating eviction-related stress in existing relationships.
In this study, we examined the association of LIHTC unit availability with IPV-related homicide at the state-level. We also examined whether the association between LIHTC unit availability and IPV-related homicide differed by state eviction rates.
Section snippets
LIHTC property data
We used 2005–2016 LIHTC Property Data available online from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 2021). These national data provide information on LIHTC projects including project location, number of rental units, year the tax credit was allocated, and year the project was placed in service. Data are collected annually from state tax credit allocating agencies via a structured survey.
National violent death reporting system
We used 2005–2016 data from the National
Results
From 2005 to 2016, there were 6351 IPV-related homicides in the states included in analyses. There was a median of 30 LIHTC units per 100,000 population (25th percentile 19, 75th percentile 41, mean 31). Compared to state-years with <30 LIHTC units per 100,000 population, state-years with ≥30 LIHTC units per 100,000 population had a slightly lower average percent population unemployed (6.6% vs. 6.0%) and higher average median household income ($52,181 vs. $54,902), percent population Black
Discussion
Overall, results indicate that increased availability of affordable rental housing through the LIHTC program is associated with a lower rate of IPV-related homicide at the state-level. These results held in analyses of IPV-related homicides in which the victim was a woman, age 15–44 years, and a current or former intimate partner of the suspect, indicating that the LIHTC program is associated with lower rates of IPV-related homicide among the populations most affected. Notably, this association
Conclusions
Given continually rising rents and a decreasing supply of affordable housing in the U.S. (Am. Rent. Hous., 2020), affordable housing programs, including LIHTC, are critical to supporting health, social, and economic wellbeing at the population-level. We found that greater availability of affordable rental housing through the LIHTC program was associated with a lower rate of IPV-related homicide at the state-level, particularly in the context of high eviction rates. The results provide valuable
Disclaimer
The National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) is administered by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) by participating NVDRS states. The findings and conclusions of this study are those of the authors alone and do not necessarily represent the official position of the CDC or of participating NVDRS states.
Author credit statement
Anna E. Austin conceptualized the study, designed the methodology, conducted statistical analyses, wrote the original manuscript draft, and contributed to funding acquisition.
Christine Piette Durrance, Sandra L. Martin, Carol W. Runyan, Desmond K. Runyan conceptualized the study, designed the methodology, and reviewed and revised the manuscript for important intellectual content. Jeremy Mercer conducted data management, cleaning, and analysis and reviewed and revised the manuscript for
Funding
This research was funded by an award from the National Center for Injury Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (R01CE003118-01-00).
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