Crossref Citations
This article has been cited by the following publications. This list is generated based on data provided by Crossref.
Wietzke, Frank-Borge
2023.
Power and Conviction.
Article contents
Indigenous Responses to Protestant Missionaries: Educational Competition and Economic Development in Ottoman Turkey
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 May 2022
Abstract
In recent years, a growing literature has claimed that there is a strong and consistent association between the presence of historic missionary societies outside Europe and positive long-term socio-economic outcomes. Yet, most of these studies fail to specify whether this finding is the result of missionary investment in human capital or of local actors stepping up their educational efforts in reaction to missionary activities. This article uses the example of Protestant missionary activity in Ottoman Turkey to separate these two mechanisms. The Ottoman state and the Armenian population responded to missionary incursions by modernizing and expanding their educational efforts. However, after the foundation of the Republic and of modern Turkey, most of the missionary schools were closed and the Armenian population was dramatically reduced. Using the blockage of direct effects, this study confirms the role that indirect effects or emulation has played in Ottoman Turkey. Results show that places with historically heightened competition between missionary schools and native educational institutions are more likely to have a higher income, as measured by night-time light density.
Résumé
Ces dernières années, une littérature grandissante a montré qu’il y une association forte et cohérente entre les sociétés missionnaires historiques en dehors de l’Europe et des résultats socio-économiques positifs à long terme. Pourtant, la plupart de ces études ne précisent pas si ce constat est le résultat d’investissements missionnaires dans le capital humain ou d’acteurs locaux qui intensifient leurs efforts éducatifs en réaction aux activités missionnaires. Cet article s’appuie sur l’analyse des activités missionnaires protestantes en Turquie ottomane pour séparer les deux mécanismes. L’État ottoman et les Arméniens ont répondu aux incursions missionnaires en modernisant et en élargissant leurs efforts d’éducation. De plus, après la fondation de la République, la majorité des écoles missionnaires et de la population arménienne ont cessé d’exister dans la Turquie moderne. En utilisant le blocage des effets directs, cette étude montre le rôle des effets indirects, c’est-à-dire de l’émulation, dans la Turquie ottomane. Les résultats montrent que les endroits où la concurrence est historiquement accrue entre les écoles missionnaires et les établissements d’enseignement autochtones, sont plus susceptibles d’avoir des revenus plus élevés, tels que mesurés par la densité lumineuse nocturne.
Zusammenfassung
In den letzten Jahren hat eine stetig wachsende Zahl von Studien einen starken und anhaltenden Zusammenhang zwischen historischen Missionsgesellschaften außerhalb Europas und positiven, langfristigen sozioökonomischen Ergebnissen festgestellt. In den meisten dieser Studien wird jedoch nicht präzise angegeben, ob dieses Ergebnis das Resultat missionarischer Investitionen in Humankapital oder verstärkter Bildungsbestrebungen lokaler Akteure als Antwort auf die Missionstätigkeit ist. Dieser Beitrag nutzt die protestantische Missionsarbeit in der osmanischen Türkei, um beide Mechanismen zu trennen. Das osmanische Reich und die Armenier reagierten auf die missionarischen Übergriffe mit einer Modernisierung und Ausweitung ihrer Bildungsbestrebungen. Mit der Gründung der Republik, d.h. in der modernen Türkei, endete die Existenz der meisten Missionsschulen und der armenischen Bevölkerung. Durch den Rückgriff auf die Blockierung direkter Effekte bestätigt diese Studie die Rolle, die indirekte Effekte oder deren Nachahmung in der osmanischen Türkei gespielt haben. Basierend auf der nächtlichen Leuchtdichte zeigen die Studienergebnisse, dass Orte, die im Laufe ihrer Geschichte einem stärkeren Wettbewerb zwischen Missionsschulen und einheimischen Bildungseinrichtungen ausgesetzt waren, eher über ein höheres Einkommen verfügen.
Keywords
- Type
- Research Article
- Information
- European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie , Volume 63 , Issue 1 , April 2022 , pp. 39 - 86
- Copyright
- © European Journal of Sociology, 2022
References
Abcfm (American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions), 1853. “Letter from Mr. Powers, December 14, 1852,” The Missionary Herald 49 (4): 105.Google Scholar
Abcfm (American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions), 1859. “Baghchejuk: Letter from Mr. Greene, May 16, 1859,” The Missionary Herald, 55 (8): 244.Google Scholar
Abcfm (American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions), 1861. “Arabkir,” The Missionary Herald, 57 (10): 304.Google Scholar
Abcfm (American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions), 1869. “Constantinople and New York,” The Missionary Herald, 65 (6): 189.Google Scholar
Aksu, Ayşe, 2008. “İngiltere – Amerika – Osmanlı Hattında Lancaster Öğretim Sistemi,” Değerler Eğitimi Dergisi, 6 (16): 29–67.Google Scholar
Alan, Gülbadi, 2008. Amerikan Board’un Merzifon’daki Faaliyetleri ve Anadolu Koleji (Ankara, Türk Tarih Kurumu).Google Scholar
Alan, Gülbadi, 2015. Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Amerikan Protestan Okulları (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu).Google Scholar
Alan, Gülbadi and Bolat, Gökhan, 2011. “The American Board and the Ottoman Women’s Education,” History Studies: 105–117.10.9737/hist_368CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arbatlı, Cemal E. and Gökmen, Güneş, 2018. “Ethnic Capital and Sub-National Development: Armenian and Greek Legacy in Post-Expulsion Turkey,” SSRN [doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3273964].CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arpee, Leon, 1909. The Armenian Awakening: A History of the Armenian Church, 1820–1860 (Chicago, The University of Chicago Press).Google Scholar
Bai, Ying and Kung, James Kai-sing, 2015. “Diffusing Knowledge While Spreading God’s Message: Protestantism and Economic Prosperity in China, 1840–1920,” Journal of the European Economic Association, 13 (4): 669–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bassey Magnus, O., 1999. Missionary Rivalry and Educational Expansion in Nigeria, 1885-1945 (Lewiston, Edwin Mellen Press).Google Scholar
Becker Sascha, O. and Woessmann, Ludger, 2008. “Luther and the Girls: Religious Denomination and the Female Education Gap in Nineteenth-Century Prussia,” The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 110 (4): 777–805.10.1111/j.1467-9442.2008.00561.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benavot, Aaron, 1989. “Education, Gender, and Economic Development: A Cross-National Study,” Sociology of Education, 62 (1): 14–32.10.2307/2112821CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berman, Edward H., 1974. “African Responses to Christian Mission Education,” African Studies Review, 17 (3): 527–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boateng, Godfred O., Okoye, Dozie, Amoyaw, Jonathan and Luginaah, Isaac, 2019. “Six Decades After Independence: The Enduring Influence of Missionary Activities on Regional Wealth Inequalities in Ghana,” Journal of Economic Geography, 20 (1): 93–122.Google Scholar
Bolt, Jutta and Bezemer, Dirk, 2009. “Understanding Long-Run African Growth: Colonial Institutions or Colonial Education,” The Journal of Development Studies, 45 (1): 24–54.10.1080/00220380802468603CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cagé, Julia and Rueda, Valeria, 2016. “The Long-Term Effects of the Printing Press in Sub-Saharan Africa,” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 8 (3): 69–99.Google Scholar
Caicedo, Felipe V., 2018. “The Mission: Human Capital Transmission, Economic Persistence, and Culture in South America,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 134 (1): 507–556.10.1093/qje/qjy024CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calvi, Rossella and Mantovanelli, Federico G., 2018. “Long-Term Effects of Access to Health Care: Medical Missions in Colonial India,” Journal of Development Economics, 135: 285–303.10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.07.009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calvi, Rossella, Mantovanelli, Federico and Hoehn-Velasco, Lauren, 2019. “The Protestant Legacy: Missions and Human Capital in India,” SSRN [doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3354891].CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castelló-Climent, Amparo, Chaudhary, Latika and Mukhopadhyay, Abhiroop, 2017. “Higher Education and Prosperity: From Catholic Missionaries to Luminosity in India,” The Economic Journal, 128 (616): 3039–3075.10.1111/ecoj.12551CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clay, Christopher, 1998. “Labour Migration and Economic Conditions in Nineteenth‐century Anatolia,” Middle Eastern Studies, 34 (4): 1–32.10.1080/00263209808701241CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Currie, Janet and Moretti, Enrico, 2003. “Mother’s Education and the Intergenerational Transmission of Human Capital: Evidence from College Openings,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118 (8): 1495–1532.10.1162/003355303322552856CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deol, Harnik, 2000. Religion and Nationalism in India: The Case of the Punjab (New York, Routledge).Google Scholar
Deringil, Selim, 1998. The Well-Protected Domains: Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876-1909 (New York, St. Martin’s Press).Google Scholar
Dunch, Ryan, 2001. Fuzhou Protestants and the Making of a Modern China, 1857-1927 (New Haven, Yale University Press).Google Scholar
Durmaz, Oya G., 2015. “The Distribution of the Armenian Abandoned Properties in an Ottoman Locality: Kayseri (1915–1918),” Middle Eastern Studies, 51 (5): 838–853.10.1080/00263206.2015.1018187CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dwight, Harrison G. O., 1850. Christianity Revived in the East (New York, Baker and Scribner).Google Scholar
Dwight, Henry Otis, Tupper, Henry Allen Jr., and Bliss, Edwin Munsell, eds, 1904. The Encyclopaedia of Missions (New York, Funk & Wagnalls Company).Google Scholar
Elibol, Numan, 2007. “Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Nüfus Meselesi Ve Demografi Araştırmaları,” Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 12 (2): 135–60.Google Scholar
Engerman, Stanley L., Mariscal, Elisa and Sokolof, Kenneth L., 2009. “The Evolution of Schooling Institutions in the Americas, 1800-1925,” in Eltis, David, Lewis, Frank and Sokolof, Kenneth, eds, Human Capital and Institutions: A Long Run View (New York, Cambridge University Press: 93–142).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evered, Emine Ö., 2012. Empire and Education Under the Ottomans: Politics, Reform, and Resistance from the Tanzimat to the Young Turks (London, I.B. Tauris).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fortna, Benjamin C., 2002. Imperial Classroom: Islam, the State, and Education in the Late Ottoman Empire (New York, Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Gallego, Francisco A., 2010. “Historical Origins of Schooling: The Role of Democracy and Political Decentralization,” The Review of Economics and Statistics, 92 (2): 228–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallego, Francisco A. and Woodberry, Robert, 2010. “Christian Missionaries and Education in Former African Colonies: How Competition Mattered,” Journal of African Economies, 19 (3): 294–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gençoğlu, Mustafa, 2014. “1916 Maarif Teftişlerinle Mamuratülaziz Sancağı’nın İlköğretim Durumu,” Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 15 (1): 159–193.Google Scholar
Henderson, J. Vernon, Storeygard, Adam and Weil, David N., 2012. “Measuring Economic Growth from Outer Space,” American Economic Review, 102 (2): 994–1028.10.1257/aer.102.2.994CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huber, R., 1899. “Empire Ottoman: Division administrative [Map],” 1: 1,500,000, Library of Congress [https://www.loc.gov/item/2007633930].Google Scholar
Karpat, Kemal H., 1985. Ottoman Population, 1830–1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press).Google Scholar
Kévorkian Raymond, H. and Paboudjian, Paul B., 2012. 1915 Öncesinde Osmanlı İmparatorluğun’da Ermeniler (İstanbul, Aras Yayıncılık).Google Scholar
Klasen, Stephan and Lamanna, Francesca, 2009. “The Impact of Gender Inequality in Education and Employment on Economic Growth: New Evidence for a Panel of Countries,” Feminist Economics, 15 (3): 91–132.10.1080/13545700902893106CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knowles, Stephan, Lorgelly, Paula K. and Owen, P. Dorian, 2002. “Are Educational Gender Gaps a Brake on Economic Development? Some Cross-Country Empirical Evidence,” Oxford Economic Papers, 54: 118–49.10.1093/oep/54.1.118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lankina, Tomila and Getachew, Lullit, 2013. “Competitive Religious Entrepreneurs: Christian Missionaries and Female Education in Colonial and Post-Colonial India,” British Journal of Political Science, 43 (1): 103–131.10.1017/S0007123412000178CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahoney, James, 2000. “Path Dependence in Historical Sociology,” Theory and Society, 29 (4): 507–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meier zu Selhausen, Felix, 2019. “Missions, Education and Conversion in Colonial Africa Globalization and the Rise of Mass Education,” in Mitch, David and Cappelli, Gabriele, eds, Globalization and the Rise of Mass Education (Cham, Springer International Publishing: 25–59).10.1007/978-3-030-25417-9_2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michalopoulos, Stelios and Papaioannou, Elias, 2013. “Pre-Colonial Ethnic Institutions and Contemporary African Development,” Econometrica, 81 (1): 113–152.Google ScholarPubMed
Nunn, Nathan, 2014a. “Chapter 7 - Historical Development,” in Aghion, Philippe and Durlauf, Steven N., eds, Handbook of Economic Growth (Amsterdam, Elsevier: 347–402)Google Scholar
Nunn, Nathan, 2014b. “Gender and Missionary Influence in Colonial Africa,” in Akyeampong, Emmanuel, Robinson, James, Nunn, Nathan and Bates, Robert H., eds, Africa’s Development in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 489–512).10.1017/CBO9781139644594.021CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polatel, Mehmet, Mildanoğlu, Nora, Eren, Özgür Leman and Atılgan, Mehmet, 2012. 2012 Beyannamesi: İstanbul Ermeni Vakıflarının El Konan Mülkleri (İstanbul, Hrant Dink Vakfı Yayınları).Google Scholar
Riggs, Edward, 1886. “Anatolia College, Western Turkey”, The Missionary Herald, 82 (11): 417.Google Scholar
Şahin, Emrah, 2011. “Responding to American Missionary Expansion: An Examination of Ottoman Imperial Statecraft, 1880-1910,” PhD diss., McGill University.Google Scholar
Sakallı, Seyhun O., 2019. “Secularization and religious backlash: Evidence from Turkey” [https://sites.google.com/site/sosakalli/research].Google Scholar
Sakaoğlu, Necdet, 1985. “Eğitim Tartışmaları,” in Belge, Murat, ed., Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Türkiye Ansiklopedisi (İstanbul, İletişim Yayınları: 478–484).Google Scholar
Schultz, Theodore W., 1961. “Investment in Human Capital,” The American Economic Review, 51 (1): 1–17.Google Scholar
Sharkey, Heather J., 2013. American Evangelicals in Egypt: Missionary Encounters in an Age of Empire (Princeton, Princeton University Press).Google Scholar
Smith, Eli and Dwight, H. G. O., 1834. Missionary Researches in Armenia (London, G. Wightmann).Google Scholar
Somel, Selçuk Akşin, 2001. The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire 1839-1908 (Boston, Brill).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, Frank Andrews, 1984. Academies for Anatolia: A Study of the Rationale, Program and Impact of the Educational Institutions Sponsored by the American Board in Turkey, 1830-1980 (Lanham, University Press of America).Google Scholar
Trejo, Guillermo, 2009. “Religious Competition and Ethnic Mobilization in Latin America: Why the Catholic Church Promotes Indigenous Movements in Mexico,” American Political Science Review, 103 (3): 323–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uğur, Yunus, 2018. “Mapping Ottoman Cities: Socio-Spatial Definitions and Groupings (1450–1700),” Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies, 18 (3): 16–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Üngör, Uǧur Ümit and Polatel, Mehmet. 2011. Confiscation and Destruction: The Young Turk Seizure of Armenian Property (London, Continuum).Google Scholar
Waldinger, Maria, 2017. “The Long-Run Effects of Missionary Orders in Mexico,” Journal of Development Economics, 127: 355–378.10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.12.010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wantchekon, Leonard, Klašnja, Marko and Novta, Natalija, 2014. “Education and Human Capital Externalities: Evidence from Colonial Benin,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 130 (2): 703–757.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wietzke, Frank-Borge, 2015. “Long-Term Consequences of Colonial Institutions and Human Capital Investments: Sub-National Evidence from Madagascar,” World Development, 66: 293–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodberry, Robert D., 2012. “The Missionary Roots of Liberal Democracy,” American Political Science Review 106 (2): 244–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodberry, Robert D. and Shah, Timothy S., 2004. “The Pioneering Protestants,” Journal of Democracy 15 (2): 47–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, Pamela, 2001. “Knowledge, Nation, and the Curriculum: Ottoman Armenian Education (1853-1915),” PhD diss., The University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Yumuşak, Ibrahim Guran, Bilen, Mahmut and Ateş, Hamza, 2013. “The Impacts of Gender Inequality in Education on Economic Growth in Turkey,” Procedia -Social and Behavioral Sciences, 103: 1093–1103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 1
- Cited by