Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-9pm4c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-28T23:09:12.427Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Malaria and French Imperialism*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 January 2009

William B. Cohen
William B. Cohen
Affiliation:
University of Indiana, Bloomington
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

It has been argued that the conquest of disease, particularly malaria, preceded and facilitated the spread of the European empires in Africa. The French experience shows the contrary. Even into the twentieth century surprisingly little use was made of quinine; death rates from malaria remained high. Yet the French empire expanded steadily. As the empire expanded, more and more use was made of indigenous troops. Africans recruited within the conquered territories were sent to conquer new territories. As the number of European combatants fell, so did the European death rate. Then, once the colonies were subjugated, communications and living conditions improved, making life healthier for Euopeans. The lowering of the death rate must therefore be ascribed to the expansion of the French empire rather than to the achievements of medical science.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 24 , Issue 1 , January 1983 , pp. 23 - 36
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1983

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Curtin, Philip D., The Image of Africa–British Ideas and Actions, 1780–1850 (Madison, 1964), 362;Google Scholaridem, ‘The white man's grave: image and reality, 1780–1850’, Journal of British Studies I (1961), 110;Google ScholarGelfand, Michael, Rivers of Death in Africa (Salisbury, 1967), 4;Google ScholarGann, Lewis and Duignan, Peter, Colonialism in Africa, 1870–1960, I (Cambridge, 1969), 1–2;Google ScholarMcNeill, William H., Plagues and Peoples (New York, 1976), 279–280;Google ScholarHeadrick, Daniel R., ‘The tools of imperialism: technology and the expansion of European colonial empires in the nineteenth century’, Journal of Modern History, LI (1979), 246;Google Scholaridem, The Tools of Empire-Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981), 58–73;Google ScholarDeschamps, Hubert, L'Europe découvre I'Afrique occidentale, 1794–1900 (Paris, 1967), 20, 149–150.Google Scholar

2 Leonard, Jacques, Les officiers de santé de la marine française de 1814 à 1835 (Rennes, 1967), 209;Google ScholarRaffenel, Anne, Voyage dans l'Afrique occidentale en 1843 et 1844 (Paris, 1846), 78;Google ScholarMonteil, Colonel P. L., Quelques feuillets de l'histoire coloniale (Paris, 1924), 32;Google ScholarLota, Louis, Contributions à la géographie médicate du Soudan français (Paris, 1887), 36.Google Scholar

3 Brignon, René, Contribution de la France à l'étude des maladies coloniales (Lyon, 1942), 20;Google ScholarTremsal, Jean, Un siècle de médecine coloniale française en Algérie (1830–1929) [Tunis, 1929], 16;Google ScholarHamet, , ‘Malaria and military medicine during the conquest of Algeria’, Military Medicine (1933), 25.Google Scholar

4 Lota, , Contributions, 30;Google ScholarBalzac, Honoré, Comédie humaine, (Paris, 1958), 11, 230;Google ScholarLittré, Emile, ‘Colonie’, Dictionnaire de la langue française (Paris, 1883).Google Scholar

5 Fanoudh-Siefer, Léon, Le mythe du nègre et de l'Afrique noire dans la littérature française (Paris, 1968).Google Scholar

6 France, É Major de l'armée, L'armée française en Indochine (Paris, 1931), 64.Google Scholar

7 ‘Rapport médical de M. le médecin der ler classe Martin-Dupont’, H 1, Archives nationales du Sénégal (henceforth abbreviated as ANS); France, État Major de l'armée, Les armées françaises d'outre-mer, Le service de santé aux colonies (Paris, 1931), 126;Google ScholarDean Leonard, Donald, ‘The French Conquest and Pacification of Madagascar, 1885–1895’ (unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Ohio State University, 1966), 207–208.Google Scholar

8 Quoted in Poirier, Jules, Campagne du Dahomey, 1892–1894 (Paris, 1895), 151;Google ScholarReynaud, Dr Gustave, L'armée coloniale au point de vue de l'hygiène pratique (Paris, 1892), 5.Google Scholar

9 Cited in Magne, D., ‘Essai sur la nature et les causes de la fièvre jaune’, Revue coloniale, IV (1844), 221.Google Scholar

10 Bérenger-Féraud, L. J. B., Traité clinique des maladies des européns an Sénégal (Paris, 1875), 1, 114–116;Google Scholar‘Rapport médical de M. le médecin de ier classe Martin-Dupont’, HI, ANS; Reynaud, Gustave, Considérations sanitaires sur l'expédition de Madagascar [Paris, n.d. (1898?)], 225, 157;Google Scholar Governor to Minister, Grand Bassam, 21 August 1900, Affaires Politiques 3239 Archives nationales, section outre-mer (henceforth abbreviated as ANSOM).

11 Bérenger-Féraud, , Traité clinque I, 88, II, 170, 242, I, 186;Google ScholarLeonard, , ‘The French conquest’, 207–208;Google ScholarDes Colonies, Ministère, Instructions concernant les mésures à prendre contre les maladies endémiques, épidémiques et contagieuses (Paris, 1903), 1;Google Scholar similar findings in French Equatorial Africa in the forthcoming thesis of Rita Headrick, ‘The Impact of Colonialism on Health in French Equatorial Africa, 1880–1940’, University of Chicago.

12 Reynaud, , L'armée coloniale, 14.Google Scholar

13 France, État Major, Le service de santé, 53;Google ScholarArmand, Adolphe, L'Algérie médicate (Paris, 1854), 78, 241;Google ScholarThéodore-Vibert, Paul, La philosophie de la colonisation, (Paris, 1906), 1, 439–440.Google Scholar

14 Mollien, G., Voyage dans l'intérieur de l'Afrique (Paris, 1820), 11, 136;Google ScholarRaffenel, , Voyage dans l'Afrique, 102, 334;Google ScholarGallieni, Joseph, Voyage au Soudan français (Paris, 1885), 71, 376;Google Scholaridem, Deux campagnes au Soudan français, 1886–1888 (Paris, 1891), 451;Google ScholarMeniaud, Jacques, Les pionniers du Soudan avant et après Archinard, 1879–1894 (Paris, 1931), 1, 151–152.Google Scholar

15 Gallieni, , Deux campagnes, 400;Google ScholarMéniaud, , Les pionniers, I, 51–52.Google Scholar

16 Reynaud, , Considérations sanitaires, 218.Google Scholar

17 Colin, Léon, L'expédition anglaise de la Côte d'or (Paris, 1874), 19;Google ScholarGamier, Louis J., Contribution à la géographie médicate – souvenirs médicaux du paste de Sédhiou (Casamance) [Rochefort-sur-mer, 1888], 83–88;Google ScholarReynaud, , L'armée coloniale, 348;Google Scholar Division d'occupation de I'Annam et du Tonkin, Instructions médicales à l'usage des pastes militaires dépourvues de médecins (Hanoi, 1886), 4.Google Scholar

18 Fonssagrives, Jean-Baptiste, Traite d'hygiène Navale (Paris, 1856), 293;Google Scholar Gestin, ‘Rapport sur le comptoir d'Assinie, 1856–57’, HI, ANS; Pipy, , ‘Sur l'état morale des populations maures et Jolofs qui habitent entre l'escale des Trarza et Dagana’, 1851, 10, Senegal XI, 27, ANSOM;Google ScholarDudon, Jean Charles, ‘Notes et observations sur les affections paludéennes à la côte occidentale d'Afrique’ (Paris, 1869), 8;Google ScholarDuvigneau, Dr, Guide médical au Congo et dans l'Afrique équatoriale a l'usage desfonctionnaires et des colons (Paris, 1900), 113–114;Google ScholarBérenger-Féraud, , Traité clinique, I, 244–245.Google Scholar (Taken in very large doses quinine, since it was toxic, did have unfortunate side effects and could cause headaches, nausea, some disturbance of vision, ringing of the ears, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, hot flushed skin, and profuse sweating.)

19 Idem, De la fièvredite bilieuse inflammatoire aux Antilles et dans l'Amérique tropicals (Paris, 1878).Google Scholar Thus quinine, for instance, while serving as a suppressant of the symptoms due to a Plasmodium falciparum infection, actually kills Plasmodium vivax and can cure malaria infection. Goodman, Louis S. and Oilman, Alfred, The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 4th ed (New York, 1971), 1117.Google Scholar

20 Bérenger-Féraud, , Traité clinique I, 246;Google ScholarReynaud, , Considérations, 152;Google ScholarDuvigneau, , Guide médical au Congo, 113–114;Google ScholarFoa, Edouard, le Dahomey (Paris, 1895), 321;Google ScholarMangin, General, Souvenirs d'Afrique (Paris, 1936), 65–66;Google ScholarNelson, Erwin E., ‘Cinchona and its Alkaloids in the Treatment of Malaria’; Forest Ray, Moulton (ed.), Human Malaria (Washington, D.C. 1941), 257.Google Scholar

21 Galli, H., La guerre à Madagascar (Paris, n.d.), 626.Google Scholar

22 Saint-Martin, Yves, Rapports de la situation politique (1874–1891) (Dakar, 1962), 52;Google Scholar opinion of Dr Quennec, cited in Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, Le service de sante, 265; Reynaud, , L'armée coloniale 166, 348;Google Scholaridem, Considérations sanitaires, 108;Google ScholarNavarre, Pierre, Manuel d'hygiéne coloniale (Paris, 1895), 430–431.Google Scholar Some thought yellow fever was a form of malaria and would have been disappointed to see quinine as ineffective; such views are reported, but not espoused, by Bérenger-Féraud, , De la fièvre dite bilieuse, 6–8.Google Scholar

23 Hamet, , ‘Malaria and military medicine during the conquest of Algeria’, Military Medicine (1933), 24–33;Google ScholarBrignon, René, Contribution de la France à l'études des maladies coloniales (Lyon, 1942), 20;Google ScholarHeadrick, , The Tools of Empire, 66–67;Google ScholarTremsal, Jean, Un siècle, 16;Google Scholar for experiments foreshadowing Maillot see Izac, R., ‘Le traitement du paludisme par les fortes doses de sulfate de quinine avant Antonini et Maillot’, Lyon pharmaceutique, xxv (1974), 569–574.Google Scholar

24 ‘Rapport du Dr S. D. L. Montagne sur les maladies observées au Fort Joinville (Comptoir d'Assinie)’, 25 December 1847, fol. 64, HI, ANS; Bérenger-Féraud, , Traité clinique, I, 124, 136.Google Scholar

25 Edmond, and Sergent, Etienne, L'armée d'orient delivrée du paludisme (Paris, 1932), 5, 25–26;Google ScholarGuiart, Jules, Garin, Charles and Léger, Marcel, Précis de la médecine coloniale (Paris, 1929), 282.Google Scholar

26 Sergent, Sergent, L'armée, 30;Google ScholarMartin, Gustave, L'existence au Caméroun (Paris, 1921), 236, 347, 364.Google Scholar

27 Spire, Camille, ‘Dernière acquisition de la médecine coloniale’, Bulletin de la société française des ingénieurs coloniaux, LXXXIV (1925), 55;Google ScholarBouffard, , ‘L'assistance médicale en Cote d'Ivoire pendant l'année 1925’, Annales de médecine et pharmacie coloniales, XXV (1927), 309;Google ScholarEdmond, and Sergent, Etienne, ‘Erreurs courantes et préjugés en matière de paludisme’, Service antipaludique algérien, no. 21 (Algiers, 1921);Google Scholar ‘L'œuvre sanitaire en AOF. La lutte centre le paludisme’, Affaires politiques 3240, ANSOM; Secrétaire d'état aux colonies, Direction du service de santé, ‘L'oeuvre sanitaire de la France en Afrique équatoriale’, Affaires politiques 3250, ANSOM. This attitude of neglecting expert advice had been denounced by a French doctor in regard to the African failure to take quinine regularly. He had blamed it on the malfunctioning ‘of the brains of these primitives’. Sorel, , ‘L'hygiène à Côte d'Ivoire en 1912’, Annales d'hygiène et médecine coloniales XVI (1913), 951.Google Scholar

28 Scientific discovery and general acceptance in the medical profession of these ideas did not necessarily coincide. Thus as late as 1891 an experienced doctor in tropical medicine dismissed Laveran's discoveries and held on to older ideas of malaria being spread by ‘unhealthy’ exhalations of the soil. Parasites he dismissed as ‘pseudo microbes’. Pepper, Dr Edouard, De la malaria. Contribution à l'étude des maladies infectieuses d'origine cosmique (Paris, 1891);Google Scholar Professor Peter, ‘Préface’, in ibid, xvi; ten years later the subcommision on health of A.O.F. still believed in the miasma theory of the nineteenth century (Gouvernement Général, A.O.F., ‘Inspection des services sanitaires civils. Comité supérieur d'hygiène et de salubrité publique’, Paludisme et Fièvre jaune. Rapport introductif (Paris, 1904), 171);Google Scholar the École Coloniale, the training school for overseas administrators, taught its cadets the miasma theory in 1902. École coloniale ‘Hygiène et médecine pratique, 1902–1903’, course outline in library of ANSOM. Popular writers continued to be wedded to such ideas as late as the 1920s; Maurice, Rondet-Saint, ‘Les influences telluriques morbides’, Mer et colonies (1925), 10.Google Scholar

29 Galli, , La guerre, 190–191, 626–627, 887;Google Scholard'Anthouard, A. and Ranchot, A., L'expédition de Madagascar–journal de route (Paris, 1930), 54–55, 86, 143;Google ScholarReynaud, , L'expédition, 384;Google ScholarChauliac, G., ‘Contribution à l'étude médico-militaire de l'expédition de Madagascar en 1895’, Bulletin de Madagascar, CCXL (1966), 411–441; CCXLI (1966), 507–551.Google Scholar

30 As is argued by authors cited in footnote 1.

31 Méniaud, J., Les pionniers, II, 450–451, 152.Google Scholar

32 Reynaud, , Considérations sanitaires, 160;Google ScholarMéniaud, , Les pionniers, II, 260;Google ScholarReynaud, , Hygiène des colonies, (Paris, 1903), 11, 363.Google Scholar

33 Reynaud, , Hygiène des colonies, II, 4.Google Scholar

34 Gallieni, Joseph, Deux campagnes du Soudan français, 1886–1888 (Paris, 1891), 24;Google ScholarMangin, Lt-Col, ‘Les troupes noires’, Revue de Paris (1909), 71.Google Scholar

35 Reynaud, , Hygiène des colonies, 625.Google Scholar

36 Ibid, II, 3, n. 1.

37 Revue bleue, cited in Galli, La guerre à Madagascar, 655;Google ScholarReynaud, , Hygiène des colonies, II, 9;Google ScholarLaborde, C. V., ‘L'expédition de Madagascar’, Tribune médicate, IV (22 Jan. 1896), 63;Google ScholarPoirier, Jules, Conquête de Madagascar (1895–1896) [Paris, n.d.), 17.Google Scholar

38 Reynaud, , Hygiene des colonies, I, 333.Google Scholar

39 Dodds quoted in Poirier, , Campagnedu Dahomey, 151;Google ScholarPéroz, Colonel, Au Soudan français, souvenirs de guerre et de mission (Paris, 1889), 452, 101.Google Scholar Similar comments are to be found in idem, Au Niger, récits de campagne, 1891–1892 (Paris, 1894) 224, 321.Google Scholar The death rate for the entire Sudan expedition among the French was 280 per thousand, Reynaud, , Considérations sanitaires, 473;Google ScholarGallieni, , Deux campagnes, 440.Google Scholar

40 Vaysse, Dr, ‘Morbidité et mortalité des troupes du corps d'occupation de Madagascar en 1901 suivant les régions’, Annales d'hygiéne médicate (1903), 334.Google Scholar

41 Malaria Commission, League of Nations, Principles and Methods of Antimalarial Measures in Europe (Geneva, 1927), 27;Google Scholar the contemporary impact of population movements upon malaria is well described in Prothero, R. Mansell, Migrants and Malaria in Africa (Pittsburgh, 1965).Google Scholar Ackerknecht has shown the impact on nineteenth-century mid-west U.S. Cf. Ackerknecht, Erwin H., Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900 (Baltimore, 1945), 67.Google Scholar For Europe see Bruce-Chwatt, Leonard Jan and Zulueta, Julian De, The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe – A Historico-Epidemiological Study (Oxford, 1980), passim.Google Scholar

42 Ackernecht, , Malaria, 67.Google Scholar

43 Lane, Clayton, Housing and Malaria [Malaria Commission, League of Nations Report, III, Health] (Geneva, 1931), 13.Google Scholar

44 Reynaud, , Hygiene des colonies, II, 4.Google Scholar In other colonies the fall of the death rate after conquest was as follows (per thousand): Algeria, 1837–47, 77; 1892, 11; Tunisia, 1881, 61; 1892, 12; Cochinchina, 1861, 115; 1892, 29. Source: Reynaud, G., L'armée coloniale, 14.Google Scholar

45 Reynaud, , Considérations, 191.Google Scholar