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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 February 2009
In this article I propose to examine some of the Greek words used in Acts 28. 30–31.1 shall argue that the associations of these words become more apparent when we search the Hellenistic sources which use them. This searching can now, with the aid of the compact disc supplied by the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, be done more thoroughly than before. Though the disc in use in 1988 at the time of writing is not complete, it does contain some 40 million words of Greek, and its predecessor also contains a substantial (but incomplete) collection of the papyri. Although I do not claim to have examined every use in Greek texts of the words discussed below, I have examined a very substantial proportion of them based upon a sample containing at least two thirds of the entire corpus. I argue that at least three of the terms used have clear and specific legal connotations. They do not all retain those connotations in the present literary context of Acts, but they have a technical background in civil rather than criminal law and there may be some echo here of details of Paul's stay in Rome. Though I am arguing for a technical background in civil law for some of the terms, I am ready to agree that the description of Paul's stay in Rome does also have implications for the leniency with which he was treated during proceedings on a criminal charge, and also significant theological resonances. These further connotations will emerge from a detailed discussion of some of the key words and phrases in the Greek of the closing verses of Acts.
1 The TLG discs of 1988 and 1987 were used. The discs were searched by the Ibycus micro produced by David Packard. Acknowledgement is here made of the use of TLG materials and of the Ibycus machine. I am grateful to the reader for NTS and to Prof. Stanton for some suggested amendments to this article.Google Scholar
2 ‘In his own hired house’ K.J.V. (cf. Latin in suo conducto). On Philo and on Ephrem see Cadbury, H. J., ‘Lexical Notes on Luke-Acts III Luke's Interest in Lodging’, J.B.L. 45 (1926) 305–25 esp. 322n. 31. Cadbury alludes to the Armenian of Ephrem's Commentary on Acts as speaking of the work of Paul's hands paying for the hire. Ephrem on 2 Tim. says he sold his cloak and books. See Beginnings III 453n.Google Scholar
3 Ditt. Syll.3 1200.15 = Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum ed. Dittenberger, W. Vol. 3 (Lipsiae, 1920) 1200 (p. 349–50)Google Scholar (cf. I.G. 12 (7) 55.15). Syll.3 1024.38 = ibid. 174.1.G. 14.645 = Inscriptiones Italiae et Siciliae ed. Kaibel, G. (Inscriptiones Graecae Vol. 14) (Berlin, 1890) 161–70.Google Scholar The complex deal of Niceratos probably involves the offering of land as security and the disguising of interest as rent but that still serves to show that the term normally refers to rent. See Finley, M. I., Studies in Land and Credit in Ancient Athens (Rutgers, 1951) 32Google Scholar. The Tabulae Heracleenses and the Stele from Orchomenos are transcribed in Schwyzer, E., Dialectorum Graecarum Exempla epigraphica potiora (Leipzig, 1923) sections 62 and 665 cf. 665.25 μισθώματα τ
ς γς [τάν] Μυαιέλης έμί(σ)θω[σ]ε (dialect).Google Scholar
4 Josephus describes how Herod Agrippa was moved to house arrest after the death of Tiberius. The passage is interesting for the light it throws on the treatment of a potentially distinguished prisoner before and after he finds favour.Google Scholar
5 Phlm. 22 might be thought a counter-instance, but on this see Cadbury, art.cit., 320. Paul also received money from Philippi (Phil 4. 10, 14–18). Acts may imply that Paul had means. Acts is certainly interested in Paul's status. See Lentz, J. C., ‘Luke's Portrayal of St. Paul as a Man of High Social Status and Moral Virtue in the Concluding Chapters of Acts’ unpublished Ph.D. thesis University of Edinburgh 1988.Google Scholar
6 Eger, O., Rechtsgeschichtliches zum Neuen Testament (Basel: Reinhardt, 1919) esp. 20, 23. He cites B.G.U. 628.Google ScholarThis is further discussed in The Beginnings of Christianity: Part I: The Acts of the Apostles, ed. Jackson, J. F. Foakes and Lake, K. Vol. 5 (London: Macmillan, 1933) 332–6 esp. 336 where Cadbury says Eger's view is ‘as likely as any‘. The papyrus envisages an 18-month period for both parties to come to court.Google Scholar
7 Haenchen, E., The Acts of the Apostles: A Commentary (Oxford: Blackwells, 1971) 725 argues that the supposition that the waiting period was previously two years is ‘unproved’.Google Scholar
8 Philo, Flacc. 128: καί τόυ πλεῑστον χρόνον τ
ς έπιτροπς ᾕν έπετρόπευσε τς χώρας έκπάντων οὑτοι μάλιστ' αύτ
ςι' άπεχθείας έγεγένηντο: Λάμπων μέν (5) άσεβείας τς είς Τιβέριον Καίσαρα ςίκην σΧών καί έπί ςιετίαν τριβομένου το
πράγματος άπειρηκώς. ύπεσεις γάρ καί άναβολάς ό ςικαστής 129.1 έθελοκακν έσκήπτετο βουλόμενος κᾂυ άποψύγη τό ὑγκλημα τόν γου περί το μέλλοντος άδήλον ψόβον πρός μήκιστον χρόνον έπικρεάσας αύτ ζωήν όδυνηροτέραν θανάτου παρασχεχν ειθ ὔστερον καί ⋯τε νικν 130.1 ἔδοξεν, είς τίν τήν ούσίαν έπηρεασθναι ἔφασκεν — ήναγκάσθη γάρ γυμνα—Google Scholar
9 P.Mich. 9.563.17 άπέχειν … έκ ποδματος τήν τν ήκφορίων τς διετίας τιμήν … P.Mich. 9.563.17–19 … έκφοίου έπί τή[ν] διετίαν … P.Mil.Vogl. 6.288.9–10 … έπì τήν διετίαν … τν άπγυρικν διετίαν δραχ[μν] … έπ[ί τή]ν διετιαν κατ ἔτος ὅρνιθαν … P.Mil.Vogl. 4.241Google ScholarCf. also P.Mil.Vogl. 4.240.14, 242.11, 6.286.20, 291.13, 293.7, 293.14 where the same term is probably used but a greater degree of restoration is involved. Full details are in Papiri delta Università degli Studi di Milano (Milan Vol. 4–6. (The editor of the first volume was Vogliano, A..) See also PIFAO 1.10.10 which also involves restoration.Google Scholar
10 Moulton, and Milligan, also cite P.Oxy. 910.51 (197 C.E.), B.G.U. 180.7 (III C.E.) and P.Strass. I. 2.10 (217 C.E.) and Bauer notes Graecus Venetus Gen. 41.1, 45.5.Google Scholar
11 Lentz, , op. cit., Ch. 6, pp. 293–316 on the complexities of appeals.Google Scholar
12 See the supplementary note at the end of this article.Google Scholar
13 Eger, , op. cit., 19 n. 38.Google Scholar
14 Plato, Crat. 415.D.I: … μέν εύπορίαν, ἔπειτα δέ λελυένην τήν ῤοήν τς άγαθς ψυχς εỉναι άεì ⋯στε τό (άσχέτως) καί τό (άκωλύτως άεί ῤέον) έοωνυμίαν εἴληφεν, ὼς ἔοικε, τοτο τοὔνομα <8> Aristotle, Protr. 87.1: ‘ Αλλά μήν ἥ γε ένέργεια καì άκώλυτος έν έαυτ ἔχει τ⋯ χαíρειν, ὥστ’ ᾂν εἴη ή θεωρητική ένέργεια πασν ήςίση.+Aristotle,+Protr.+87.1:+‘+Αλλά+μήν+ἥ+γε+ένέργεια+καì+άκώλυτος+έν+έαυτ+ἔχει+τ⋯+χαíρειν,+ὥστ’+ᾂν+εἴη+ή+θεωρητική+ένέργεια+πασν+ήςίση.>Google Scholar
15 Delling, G., ‘Das letzte Wort der Apostelgeschichte’, Nov.T. 15 (1973) 193–204. Some of his negative statements now need to be corrected in the light of the evidence given in this article. He did however find many references including some still not on the TLG disc: Philod. π.θ. III col. 13.11–13; P.Oxy. 14.1641.3–6, 1705.12, 27.247.31; C.I.J. I 683.11 f.; Alciphron Ep. 3.5.3; Jos. & As. 14.12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
16 It has been suggested to me that άκολούτως ‘may derive from a different verb sc. κολούω = to thwart, to hinder (orig. to curtail)’. This seems to me to be most unlikely for three reasons: 1. In 40 million words of Greek I can find no other instance of a formation from this verb with an alpha privative. 2. Rental contracts use standard legal formulae. While I grant that this is a relatively early contract, the formula with άκωλύτως is so regular thereafter in the legal papyri as to make it extremely probable that what we have here is variant orthography. 3. The switch from ω to ο, and from υ to ου does not seem to me to be a problem. (On εου for ευ see BDF p. 7, on variation between ω and ο see LSJM on ω). Orthography in papyri and inscriptions is a variable commodity.Google Scholar
17 Plutarch, Ant. 82.3 f.: παραλύσουσα το ζν ίλέωσις ούκ έκείνοις προστίθησιν ὅ μή εỉχον, άλλ' ήμς έπιτηδειτέρους (35) ποιήσει πρός τό μενόντων αύτν άεί τοιούτων οίοί πέρ είσι μετέχειε άκωλύτως.Google Scholar
18 Jos. Ant. 12.104: … παρεκάλει πάντων ᾠν ςεηθεîεν εήν τήν 104.1 έρμηνείαν το νόμου, παρόντων άκωλóτως έπιτελεν τό îργον. Jos. Ant. 16.166: ‘Καύσαν Νωρβαν Φλάκκῳ χαίρειν. ‘Ιουδαîοι ⋯σοι ποτ’ ούν είσίν, [οἲ] δι'άρχαίαν συνήθειαν είώθασιν χρήματά τε ίερά φέροντες άναπειν άκωλύτως τοτο ποιείτωσαν είς ‘Ιεροσόλυμα.’ καί τατα μέν Καîσαρ. Jos. Ant. 16.41: … άκωλύτως τήν πάτριον εύσέβειαν ςιαφυλάττειν …Google Scholar
19 The treatise is dated after A.D. 81 Plutarch, De Tuenda Sanitate 137E 7–10: … ύγίεαν ὠν δίδωσιν άγαθν κάλλισον ήγους διδόναι τός κτσιν άρετς καί χρσιν ἔν τε λόγοις καί καί πράξεεσιν 9 άκώλυτον αύτν. 10Google Scholar
20 Epictetus 3.12.4: … όρέξει καί έκκλίσει άκωλύτως άναστρέφεσθαι.Google Scholar
21 Dio Chrysostom 36.22: οὔτε έρίζειν θεοὑς οὕτε ήττσθαι θέμις οὕτε ύπ' άλλήλων 6 ᾄτε φίλων οᾄτε ύπό ᾄλλων, άλλά πράττειν άκωλύτως 7 τά σφέτερα ἔργα μετά πάσης άεί πάντων κοινς.Google Scholar
22 Plutarch De Stoic. Repugn. 1056C 6–8 τήν δ' είμαρμένην αίτίν άνίκητον καί άκώλυτον καί ᾅτρεπτον άποφαίνων αύτός 7 Ατροπον καλεî καί Αδράστειαν καί Ανάγκην καί ПεπρωμένηνGoogle Scholar
23 Ps. Aristotle De Mundo 401 B 9–10: … οίονεί άνίκητον αίταν ⋯ντα, Είμαρμένην δέ τό εἴρειν τε καί χωρεîν άκωλύτως, Пεπρωμένην δέ … Alex. Aphrod. De Anima 2.183.1: άναιρεîται τό τήν είμαρμένην άπα 10 ράβατόν τε καί άκώυτον καί άναγκαῑον εỉναι.Google Scholar
24 On which see Winston, D., The Wisdom of Solomon (New York: Doubleday, 1979) 181 who cites references in Plato, Philo and others and notes the frequency of the word in Epictetus.Google Scholar
25 For the conviction that no human power can prevent the divine gift of repentance leading to life being given to the nations see also Acts 11.17 f.Google Scholar
