1 Goldstein, Joshua, War and Gender, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2001, p. 309Google Scholar.

2 De Pauw, Linda Grant, Battle Cries and Lullabies: Women in War from Prehistory to the Present, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1998, p. 218Google Scholar.

3 Schneider, Dorothy and Schneider, Carl J., Into the Breach: American Women Overseas in World War, Viking, New York, 1991, p. 135Google Scholar.

4 For more on how women are valued in the Geneva Conventions according to their sexual and reproductive roles, see Judith Gardam and Michelle Jarvis, Women, Armed Conflict, and International Law, Kluwer Law International, The Hague, 2001.

5 ICRC Pledge Statement, To promote the respect of women in armed conflicts, 3 November 1999. For the full statement, see http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/57JQ38 (last visited 15 January 2010).

6 Women facing war, ICRC, 2001.

7 J. Goldstein, above note 1, pp. 166–167.

8 Human Security Report 2005: Assault on the vulnerable, University of British Columbia, Canada, Part III, p. 102.

9 Ibid.

10 Ibid.

11 For more on the exclusion of women from official negotiation processes, see Strategies for Policymakers, Institute for Inclusive Security, No. 2, October 2009, available at: http://www.huntalternatives.org/download/1825_bringing_women_into_peace_negotiations_final_pdf.pdf (last visited 29 October 2009).

12 Adam Jones, ‘Gender and ethnic conflict in ex-Yugoslavia,’ in Gender Inclusive: Essays on violence, men and feminist international relations, Adam Jones (ed), Routledge, London and New York, 2009, p. 67.

13 For examples from their campaign, see www.savedarfur.org. For more on the humanitarian implications of this campaign, see Medina Haeri, ‘Saving Darfur: Does Advocacy Help or Hinder Conflict Resolution?’, The Fletcher Journal of Human Security: PRAXIS, Vol. 23, May 2008.

14 Charli Carpenter, Innocent Women and Children, Gender, Norms and the Protection of Civilians, Asgate, Burlington, 2006, p. 31.

15 Sheila Meintjes, Anu Pillay and Meredeth Turshen, ‘There is No Aftermath for Women’, in The Aftermath, Women in Post-Conflict Transformation, Sheila Meintjes, Anu Pillay and Meredeth Turshen (eds), Zed Books, London and New York, 2001, p. 7.

16 Annual Report 2008, ICRC, Geneva, 2009, p. 11.

17 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Liberia: Plan 2009–2010, available at: http://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/annual09/MAALR00109p.pdf (last visited 28 January 2010).

18 UNICEF, Afghanistan: UNICEF Humanitarian Appeal for Children and Women, Jan–Dec 2000, available at: http://www.asylumlaw.org/docs/afghanistan/AFG_1/Sec%20II/UNICEF.pdf (last visited 27 October 2009).

19 Forced Migration Online, FMO Research Guide – Managing Return, available at: http://www.forcedmigration.org/guides/fmo042/fmo042-3.htm (last visited 27 October 2009).

20 C. Carpenter, above note 14, p. 99.

21 J. Goldstein, above note 1, pp. 64–65.

22 Ibid., p. 70.

23 Statistics on Women in the Military, Women in Military Service For America Memorial Foundation, Inc., available at: http://www.womensmemorial.org/PDFs/StatsonWIM.pdf (last visited 1 October 2009).

24 Benedict, Helen, ‘The Plight of Women Soldiers,’ The Nation, 5 May 2009Google Scholar, available at: http://www.thenation.com/doc/20090518/benedict (last visited 30 September 2009).

25 Lizette Alvarez, ‘Women at Arms: G.I. Jane Breaks the Combat Barrier,’ The New York Times, 16 August 2009, available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/16/us/16women.html?_r=1 (last visited 30 September 2009).

26 Ibid.

27 Alison, Miranda, ‘Women as Agents of Political Violence: Gendering Security,’ Security Dialogue, Vol. 35, No. 4, December 2004, p. 448CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 James Fontanella-Khan, ‘Women fighters in Nepal,’ Financial Times, 26 September 2009, available at: http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/57c05a1a-a719-11de-bd14-00144feabdc0,dwp_uuid=a712eb94-dc2b-11da-890d-0000779e2340.html (last visted 30 October 2009).

29 M. Alison, above note 27, p. 450.

30 ‘No standing, few prospects: how peace is failing South Sudanese female combatants and WAAFG’, Small Army Survey Sudan Issue Brief, No. 13, September 2008, p. 1.

31 Dyan Mazurana and Kristopher Carlson, From Combat to Community: women and girls of Sierra Leone, Women Waging Peace Policy Commission, Washington DC, 2004, p. 6.

32 Ibid., p. 12.

33 Rwanda – Not so Innocent: When Women Become Killers, Africa Rights, London, 1995, pp. 1–3.

34 Ibid., p. 15.

35 Ibid., p. 1.

36 For more on the gendered aspects of the genocide particularly with regard to male and female perpetrators and victims, see Adam Jones, ‘Gender and genocide in Rwanda’, in Gender Inclusive: essays on violence, men and feminist international relations, Adam Jones (ed.), Routledge, London and New York, 2009, pp. 196–229.

37 Ibid., p. 221.

38 Women and War Iraq Newsletter, ICRC, March 2009, p. 4.

39 For more on the advent of so-called new wars, see Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2006.

40 UNHCR estimates that there were 42 million forcibly displaced people worldwide at the end of 2008. This includes 15.2 million refugees, 827,000 asylum-seekers (pending cases) and 26 million internally displaced persons (IDPs). 2008 Global Trends: Refugees, Asylum-Seekers, Returnees, Internally Displaced and Stateless Persons, UNCHR, 16 June 2009.

41 Martin Gauthier, Women and War: A case study on the integrated approach used in Casamance, ICRC, July 2009, p. 6.

42 Cassie Landers, Maternal and Newborn Health: A Global Challenge, US Fund for UNICEF Youth Report 2009, p. 9, available at: http://youth.unicefusa.org/assets/pdf/0027-unicef-youthreport09-8_4.pdf (last visited 24 September 2009).

43 See Article 32, Additional Protocol I.

44 Twenty years after the end of the Iran–Iraq war, tens of thousands of combatants still unaccounted for, ICRC, 16 October 2008, available at: http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/iran-iraq-missing-161008 (last visited 26 September 2009).

45 Meen Bhawan and Naya Baneshwor, Families of missing persons in Nepal: a study of their needs, ICRC, April 2009, p. 12.

46 Ibid., p. 24.

47 Moheindu Chemjong and Govinda Dahal, ‘Deepa, Pushpa, Sita and Maiy’, The Nepali Times, 7 March 2008, available at: http://www.nepalitimes.com.np/issue/390/Womenday/14553 (last visited 20 October 2009).

48 For more information on this movement, see Marguerite Guzman Bouvard, ‘Revolutionizing Motherhood: The Mothers of Plaza de Mayo’, Scholarly Resources, Oxford, 1994.

49 Rape: Weapon of War, OHCHR News Item, June 2008, available at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/RapeWeaponWar.aspx (last visited 22 October 2009).

50 For a historical analysis of sexual violence in armed conflict, see Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape, Fawcett Books, New York, 1975.

51 Ibid., p. 31.

52 Women in Transition, The MONEE Project CEE/CIS/Baltics Regional Monitoring Report No 6, UNICEF International Child Development Centre, Florence, 1999, p. 86.

53 Jeanne Ward, ‘Sexual violence against women and girls in conflict’, in The Shame of War: sexual violence against women and girls in conflict, OCHA/Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN), 2007, p. 12.

54 Pamela Shipman and Lauren Rumble, ‘Neglected challenges: the humanitarian responsibility to protect’, in The Shame of War: sexual violence against women and girls in conflict, OCHA/Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN), 2007, p. 115.

55 Megan Bastick, Karin Grimm, Rahel Kunz, Sexual Violence in Armed Conflict: A Global Overview and Implications for the Security Sector, Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, Geneva, 2007, p. 117.

56 Nowrojee, Binaifer, ‘Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence during the Rwandan Genocide and its Aftermath’, Human Rights Watch, New York, 1996, p. 13Google Scholar.

57 ‘Marked for Death’, Rape Survivors Living with HIV/AIDS in Rwanda, Amnesty International, 5 April 2004, p. 2, available at: http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR47/007/2004 (last visited 23 October 2009).

58 United Nations, Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Rwanda submitted by René Degni-Ségui, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, under paragraph 20 of resolution S-3/1 of 25 May 1994, (E/CN.4/1996/68), 29 January 1996, para. 16.

59 For more on a discussion of honour within International Humanitarian Law, see ICRC frame of reference on sexual violence in armed conflict and other situations of violence, ICRC, March 2009, p. 12.

60 In Prosecutor v. Zejnil Delalic et al., the ICTY stated: ‘There can be no doubt that rape and other forms of sexual assault are expressly prohibited under international humanitarian law’. It considered ‘rape to constitute a physical invasion of a sexual nature, committed on a person under circumstances that are coercive’. It therefore found that whenever rape and other forms of sexual violence meet the criteria for torture, they constitute torture, in the same manner as any other acts that meet these criteria (ICTY, Prosecutor v. Zejnil Delalic et al, Case No. IT-96-21-T, judgement of 16 November 1998, paras 476, 479 and 496). In Prosecutor v. Furundzija, the ICTY Appeal Chamber stated: ‘With regard to the issue of the reaffirmation by the International Tribunal of rape as a war crime, the Appeals Chamber finds that the international community has long recognized rape as a war crime. In the Celebici Judgement, one of the accused was convicted of torture by means of rape, as a violation of the laws or customs of war. This recognition by the international community of rape as a war crime is also reflected in the Rome Statute where it is designated as a war crime’ (ICTY, Prosecutor v. Anto Furundzija (appeal), Case No. IT-95- 17/1-A, judgement of 21 July 2000, para. 210).

61 ICTY Statute, Art. 5.g; ICTR Statute, Art. 3.g; Rome Statute, Art. 7.1.g.

62 Security Council Resolution 1325 was passed unanimously on 31 October 2000 and was the first resolution ever passed by the Security Council that specifically addresses the impact of war on women, and highlights women's contributions to conflict resolution and sustainable peace. With regard to sexual violence, it specifically called ‘on all parties to armed conflict to take special measures to protect women and girls from gender-based violence, particularly rape and other forms of sexual abuse, and all other forms of violence in situations of armed conflict.’ For more, see The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, http://www.peacewomen.org/un/sc/1325.html (last visited 28 January 2010).

63 On 19 June 2008, the Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1820, which noted that ‘rape and other forms of sexual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide’. The resolution also affirmed the council's intention when establishing and renewing ‘state specific’ sanction regimes to consider imposing ‘targeted and graduated’ measures against warring factions who committed rape and other forms of violence against women and girls. For more on this resolution, see Stop Rape Now: UN Action Against Sexual Violence in Armed Conflict, http://www.stoprapenow.org/pdf/Security%20Council%20Resolution%201820.pdf (last visited 28 January 2010).

64 As a follow-up to Resolution 1820, on 30 September 2009, the Security Council once again unanimously adopted resolution 1888, calling for the appointment of a Special Representative to the Secretary-General to provide coherent and strategic leadership to address sexual violence in armed conflict. To commemorate the anniversary of Resolution 1325, the Security Council adopted Resolution 1898, urging Member States, United Nations bodies, donors and civil society to ensure that women's protection and empowerment was taken into account during post-conflict needs assessment and planning, and factored into subsequent funding and programming. It also called on all those involved in the planning for disarmament, demobilization and integration programmes, in particular, to take into account the needs of women and girls associated with armed groups, as well as the needs of their children. For more on these resolutions, see The United Nations Non-Governmental Liaison Service (UN-NGLS), http://www.un-ngls.org/spip.php?article1633 (last visited 28 January 2010).

65 For more on the human rights and specific vulnerabilities of children born of wartime rape, see Charli Carpenter (ed.), Born of War: Protecting Children of Sexual Violence Survivors in Conflict Zones, Kumarian Press, Bloomfield, 2007.