Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Ecological engineering in aquaculture: use of seaweeds for removing nutrients from intensive mariculture

  • Published:
Journal of Applied Phycology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Rapid scale growth of intensive mariculture systems can often lead to adverse impacts on the environment. Intensive fish and shrimp farming, being defined as throughput-based systems, have a continuous or pulse release of nutrients that adds to coastal eutrophication. As an alternative treatment solution, seaweeds can be used to clean the dissolved part of this effluent. Two examples of successfully using seaweeds as biofilters in intensive mariculture systems are discussed in this paper. The first example shows that Gracilaria co-cultivated with salmon in a tank system reached production rates as high as 48.9 kg m−2 a−1, and could remove 50% of the dissolved ammonium released by the fish in winter, increasing to 90–95% in spring. In the second example, Gracilaria cultivated on ropes near a 22-t fish cage farm, had up to 40% higher growth rate (specific growth rate of 7% d−1) compared to controls. Extrapolation of the results showed that a 1 ha Gracilaria culture gave an annual harvest of 34 t (d. wt), and assimilated 6.5% of the released dissolved nitrogen. This production and assimilation was more than twice that of a Gracilaria monoculture. By integrating seaweeds with fish farming the nutrient assimilating capacity of an area increases. With increased carrying capacity it will be possible to increase salmon cage densities before risking negative environmental effects like eutrophication and toxic algal blooms sometimes associated with the release of dissolved nutrients. The potential for using mangroves and/or seaweeds as filters for wastes from intensive shrimp pond farming is also discussed. It is concluded that such techniques, based on ecological engineering, seems promising for mitigating environmental impacts from intensive mariculture; however, continued research on this type of solution is required.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ackefors H, Enell M (1994). The release of nutrients and organic matter from aquaculture systems in Nordic countries. J. appl. Ichth. 10: 225–241.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berg H, Michélsen P, Troell M, Folke C, Kautsky N (1996) Managing aquaculture for sustainability in tropical Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe. Ecol. Econ. 18: 141–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beveridge MCM, Lindsay LG, Kelly AL (1994) Aquaculture and biodiversity. Ambio 23: 497–502.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black E, Carswell B (1987) Sechelt Inlet, Spring 1986, Impact of salmon farming on marine water quality. British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Commercial Fisheries Branch. Victoria, British Columbia, 43 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black E, Gowen R, Rosenthal H, Roth E, Stechy D, Taylor FJR (1997) The cost of eutrophication from salmon farming: Implication for policy-a comment. J. environ. Manag. 50: 105–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boto, KG, Wellington JT (1983) Nitrogen and phosphorus nutritional status of a northern Australian mangrove forest. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 11: 63–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brzeski V, Newkirk G (1997) Integrated coastal food production systems – a review of current literature. Ocean coast. Manag. 34: 66–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briggs MRP, Funge-Smith SJ (1994) A nutrient budget of some intensive marine shrimp ponds in Thailand. Aquacult. fish. Manag. 25: 789–811.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burkholder JM, Glasgow HB Jr (1997) Pfiesteria piscicida and other Pfiesteria-like dinoflagellates: behavior, impacts and environmental controls. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42: 1052–1075.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buschmann AH, Cavilan M, Troell M, Kautsky N, Medina A, Guzman O (in press) Integrated tank cultivation of salmonids and seaweeds: a technical and economical analysis. Ecol. Econ.

  • Buschmann, AH, Mora OA, Gómez P, Böttger M, Buitano S, Retamales C, Vergara PA, Gutierrez A (1994) Gracilaria tank cultivation in Chile: use of land based salmon culture effluents. Aquacult. Engineering 13: 283–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buschmann AH, M. Troell M, Kautsky N, Kautsky L (1996) Integrated tank cultivation of salmonids and Gracilaria chilensis (Gracilariales, Rhodophyta). Hydrobiologia 326/327: 75–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlsson P, Granéli E, Olsson P (1990) Grazer elimination through poisoning: one of the mechanisms behindChrysochromulina polylepis bloom. In Granéli E, Sundström B, Edler E, Andersson D (eds) Toxic Marine Phytoplankton. Elsevier Science Publishing Co, New York: 116–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chandrkrachang S, Chinadit U, Chandayot P, Supasiri T, (1991) Profitable spin-offs from shrimp-seaweed polyculture. INFOFISH Int. 6/91: 26–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Claridge G (1996) Legal approaches to controlling the impacts of intensive shrimp aquaculture: adverse factors in the Thai situation. Paper presented to the International Law Institute workshop on the legal and regulatory aspects of aquaculture in India and Southeast Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, 11–13 March, 1996.

  • Cohen I, Neori A (1991) Ulva lactuca biofilters for marine fish pond effluent. I. Ammonia uptake kinetics and nitrogen content. Bot. mar. 34: 475–482.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cripps SJ (1994) Minimizing outputs: treatment. J. appl. Ichtyol. 10: 284–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daly HE, Cobb JB (1989) For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy Toward Community, the Environment and a Sustainable Future. Beacon Press, Boston, USA, 482 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dierberg FE, Kiattisimkul W (1996) Issues, impacts and implications of shrimp aquaculture in Thailand. J. environ. Manag. 20: 649–666.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edvardsen B, Moy F., Paasche E, (1990) Hemolytic activity in extracts of Chrysochromulina polylepis grown at different levels of selenite and phosphate. In Granéli E, Sundström B, Edler E, Andersson D (eds) Toxic Marine Phytoplankton. Elsevier Science Publishing Co, New York: 284–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekins P, Hillman M, Hutchison R (1994) The Gaia Atlas of Green Economics. Anchor Books, Doubleday, New York, 191 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enander M, Hasselström M (1994) An experimental wastewater treatment system for a shrimp farm. INFOFISH Int. 4/94: 56–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flaherty M, Choomjet K (1995) Marine shrimp aquaculture and natural resource degradation in Thailand. J. environ. Manage. 19: 27–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flores-Nava A (1995) Some considerations on sustainable shrimp mariculture. Jaina 6: 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (1997) Aquaculture production statistics 1985–1995. FAO Fisheries Circular No. 815, Revision 9, FAO Rome.

    Google Scholar 

  • Folke C, Kautsky N (1992) Aquaculture with its environment: prospects for sustainability. Ocean coast. Manag. 17: 5–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folke C, Kautsky N, Troell M (1994) The costs of eutrophication from salmon farming: Implications for policy. J. environ. Manage. 40: 173–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folke C, Kautsky N, Troell M, (1997) Salmon farming in context: response to Black et al. J. environ. Manage. 50: 95–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gowen RJ, Weston DP, Ervik A (1991) Aquaculture and the benthic environment. In Cowey CB, Cho CY (eds), Nutritional Strategies and Aquaculture Waste, Proceedings of the first international symposium on nutritional strategies in management of aquaculture waste (NSMAW). Department of Nutritional Science, Univ. of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, 1991: 187–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gowen, RJ (1994) Managing eutrophication associated with aquaculture development. J. appl. Ichthyol. 10: 242–257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gowen RJ, Ezzi IA (1992) Assessment and prediction of the potential for hyper-nutrification and eutrophication associated with cage culture of salmonids in Scottish coastal waters. Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory, Oban, Scotland, 136 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Granéli E, Carlsson P, Olsson P, Sundström B, Granéli W, Lindahl O (1989) From anoxia to fish poisoning: The last ten years of phytoplankton blooms in Swedish marine waters. In Cosper EM, Bricelj VM, Carpenter EJ (eds) Novel Phytoplankton Blooms-Causes and Impacts of Recurrent Brown Tides and Other Unusual Blooms. Coast. estuar. Stud. 35: 407–428.

  • Haglund K, Pedersén M (1993) Outdoor pond cultivation of the subtropical marine red alga Gracilaria tenuistipitata in brackish water in Sweden. Growth, nutrient uptake, co-cultivation with rainbow trout and epiphyte control. J. appl. Phycol. 5: 271–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haines KC (1975) Growth of the carrageenan-producing tropical red seaweed Hypnea musciformis in surface water, 870 m deep water effluent from a clam mariculture system, and in deep water enriched with artificial fertilizers or domestic sewage. In Persson G, Jaspers E (eds), Proc. 10th Eur. Symp. Mar. Biol., Ostend, Belgium, Sep. 17–23, 1975. Universa Press, Wetteren. Vol. 1: 207–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, POJ, Holby O, Kollberg S, Samuelsson M-O, (1992) Chemical fluxes and mass balance in a marine fish cage farm. IV. Nitrogen. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 89: 81–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harlin MM, Thorne-Miller B, Thursby GH (1979) Ammonium uptake by Gracilaria sp. (Florideophyceae) and Ulva lactuca (Chlorophyceae) in closed system fish culture. Proc. int. Seaweed Symp. 9: 258–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • He X, Peng T, Liu S, Huang J, He Z, Xu Q, Huang L (1990) Studies on the elimination of stress factors in Peneaus diseases. Trop. Oceanol./Redai Haiyang 9: 61–67 (in Chinese with English Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirata H, Kohirata E (1993) Culture of sterile Ulva sp. in a marine fish farm. The Israeli J. Aquacult.-Bamidgeh 45: 164–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirata, H, Kohirata E, Guo F, Danakusumah E, Xu BT (1994a) Cage culture of the sterile Ulva sp. in a coastal fish farm. In Chou LM, Munro AD, Lam TJ, Chen TW, Cheong LKK, Ding JK, Hooi KK, Khoo HW, Phang VPE, Shim KF, Tan CH (eds) The Third Asian Fisheries Forum. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines: 124–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirata H, Yamasaki S, Maenosono H, Nakazono T, Yamauchi T, Matsuda m (1994b) Relative budgets of p O2 and p CO2 in cage polycultured Red Sea bream, Pagrus major and sterile Ulva sp. Suisanzoshoku 42: 377–381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holby O, Hall POJ (1991) Chemical fluxes and mass balance in a marine fish cage farm. II. Phosphorus. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 70: 263–272.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins JS, Browdy CL, Hamilton RD II, Heffernan JA III (1995) The effect of low-rate sand filtration and modified feed management on effluent quality, pond water quality and production of intensive shrimp ponds. Estuaries 18: 116–123.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Håkansson L, Ervik A, Mäkinen T, Möller B (1988) Basic concepts concerning assessments of environmental effects of marine fish farms. Nordic council of ministers, Nord 1988, No. 90, 103 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iwama GK (1991) Interactions between aquaculture and the environment. Crit. Rev. envir. Contr. 21: 177–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jiménez del Rio M, Ramazanov Z, García-Reina G (1994) Optimization of yield and biofiltering efficiencies of Ulva rigida C. Ag. cultivated with Sparus aurata L. waste waters. Sci. Mar. 58: 329–335.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaartvedt S, Johnsen TM, Aksnes DL, Lie U, Svendsen H (1991) Occurrence of the toxic phytoflagellate Prymnesium parvum and associated fish mortality in a Norwegian fjord system. Can. J. Fish. aquat. Sci. 48: 2316–2323.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kautsky N, Folke C, Berg H, Jansson Å, Troell M (1997b) The ecological footprint concept for sustainable seafood production: a review. Ecol. Apps. 8: S63–S71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kautsky N, Troell M, Folke C (1997a) Ecological engineering for increased production and environmental improvement in open sea aquaculture. In Etnier C, Guterstam B (eds), Ecological engineering for wastewater treatment. Lewis Publisher, Chelsea, Michigan, 496 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krom MD, Ellner S, van Rijn J, Neori A (1995) Nitrogen and phosphorus cycling and transformations in a prototype ‘nonpolluting’ integrated mariculture system, Eilat, Israel. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 118: 25–36.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Langton RW, Haines KC, Lyon RE (1977) Ammonia-nitrogen production by the bivalve mollusc Tapes japonica and its recovery by the red seaweed Hypnea musciformis in a tropical mariculture system. Helgoländer wiss. Meeresunters. 30: 217–229.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lin KC, Raumthaveesub P, Wanuchsoontorn P (1993) Culture of the green mussel (Perna viridis) in waste water from an intensive shrimp pond: concept and practice. World Aquaculture 24: 68–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin CK (1995) Progression of intensive marine shrimp culture in Thailand. In Browdy CL, Hopkins SJ (eds), Swimming Through Troubled Water. Proceedings of the special session on shrimp farming, Aquaculture'95. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA: 13–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin CK, Ruamthaveesub P, Wanuchsoontorn P, Pokaphand C (1992) Integrated culture of green mussel (Perna viridis) and marine shrimps (Penaeus monodon). Book of abstracts and schedule, Aquaculture'92, Orlando, FL, 21–25 May.

  • Løland G (1993) Current forces on, and water flow through and around, floating fish farms. Aquacult. Int. 1: 72–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menatsveta P (1997) Intensive and efficient shrimp culture system, the Thai way, can save mangroves. Aquacult. Asia 2: 38–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neori A, Cohen I, Gordin H (1991) Ulva lactuca biofilters for marine fishpond effluent. II. Growth rate, yield and C:N ratio. Bot. mar. 34: 483–489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neori A, Krom MD, Ellner SP, Boyd CE, Popper D, Rabinovitch R, Davison PJ, Dvir O, Zuber D, Ucko M, Angel D, Gordin H (1996) Seaweed biofilters as regulators of water quality in integrated fish-seaweed culture units. Aquaculture 141: 183–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • New MB, Wijkstrom UN (1990) Feed for thought: some observations on aquaculture feed production in Asia. World Aquaculture 21: 17–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Persson G (1988) Relationships between feed, productivity and pollution in the farming of large rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Stockholm, PM 3534, 48 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Persson G (1991) Eutrophication resulting from salmonid fish culture in fresh and salt waters: Scandinavian experiences. In Cowey CB, Cho CY (eds), Nutritional Strategies and Aquaculture Waste: 163–185.

  • Petrell RJ, Mazhari Tabrizi K, Harrison PJ, Druehl LD (1993) Mathematical model of Laminaria production near a British Columbian salmon sea cage farm. J. appl. Phycol. 5: 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phang S-M, Shaharuddin S, Noraishah H, Sasekumar A, (1996) Studies on Gracilaria changii (Gracilariales, Rhodophyta) from Malaysian mangroves. Hydrobiologia 326/327: 347–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Primavera JH (1993) A critical review of shrimp pond culture in the Philippines. Rev. fish. Sci. 1: 151–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Primavera JH (1994) Environmental and socioeconomic effects of shrimp farming: the Philippine experience. INFOFISH Int. 1/94: 44–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson AI, Phillips MJ (1995) Mangroves as filters of shrimp pond effluents: predictions and biogeochemical research needs. Hydrobiologia 295: 311–321.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roels OA, Haines KC, Sunderlin JB (1976) The potential yield of artificial upwelling mariculture. In Persson G, Jaspers E (eds), Proc. 10th Eur. Symp. Mar. Biol., Ostend, Belgium, Sept. 17–23, 1975. Universa Press, Wetteren. Vol. 1: 358–394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rönnberg O, Ådjers K, Roukolahti C, Bondestam M (1992) Effects of fish farming on growth, epiphytes and nutrient content of Fucus vesiculosus L. in the Åland archipelago, northern Baltic Sea. Aquat. Bot. 42: 109–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rönnbäck P (in press) The ecological basis for economic value of Seafood production supported by mangrove ecosystems. Ecol. Econ.

  • Ruokolahti C (1988) Effects of fish farming on growth and chlorophyll a content of Cladophora. Mar. Poll. Bull. 19: 166–169.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryther JH, Goldman JC, Gifford JE, Huguenin JE, Wing AS, Clarner JP, Williams LD, Lapointe BE (1975) Physical models of integrated waste recycling-marine polyculture systems. Aquaculture 5: 163–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tam NFY, Wong YS (1993) Retention of nutrients and metals in mangrove sediment receiving wastewater of different strengths. Envir. Technol. 14: 719–729.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thongrak S, Prato T, Chiayvareesajja S, Kurtz W (1997) Economic and water quality evaluation of intensive shrimp production systems in Thailand. Agricultural Systems 53: 121–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Troell M (1996) Intensive fish cage farming: impacts, resource demands and increased sustainability through integration. PhDthesis, Stockholm University, Stockholm, pp. 148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Troell M, Berg H 1997. Cage farming in the tropical Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe: impact and biogeochemical changes in sediment. Aquaculture Res. 28: 527–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Troell M, Halling C, Nilsson A, Buschmann AH, Kautsky N, Kautsky L (1997) Integrated open sea cultivation of Gracilaria chilensis (Gracilariales, Rhodophyta) and salmonids for reduced environmental impact and increased economic output. Aquaculture 156: 45–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Troell M, Kautsky N, Folke C 1999 Comment: Applicability of integrated coastal aquaculture systems. Ocean coast. Manage. 42: 63–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Troell M, Norberg J (1998) Modelling output and retention of suspended solids in an integrated salmon-mussel culture. Ecological Modelling 110: 65–77.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trott LA, Alongi DM, Olsen D (1996) Results from the monitoring program in mangrove creek ecosystems near Sea Ranch Pty Ltd. The Australian Prawn Farmers' Association 1996 Workshop and Annual General Meeting, 26–28 July, 1996, Cairns, Australia.

  • Uthoff D (1996) From traditional use to total destruction-forms and extent of economic utilization in the Southeast Asian mangroves. Natural resources and development, vol 43/44, Institute for Scientific Co-operation, Tübingen, Federal Republic of Germany: 58–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vandermeulen H, Gordin H (1990) Ammonium uptake using Ulva (Clorophyceae) in intensive fishpond systems: mass culture and treatment of effluent. J. appl. Phycol. 2: 263–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weber M (1996) So you say you want a blue revolution? The Amicus Journal, Fall 1996: 39–42.

  • Weston DP (1986) The environmental effects of floating cage mariculture in Puget Sound. School of Oceanography, College of Oceans and Fisheries Sci., University of Washington, Seattle, USA, 148 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong YS, Lan CY, Chen GZ, Li SH, Chen XR, Liu ZP, Tam NFY (1995) Effects of wastewater discharge on nutrient contamination of mangrove soils and plants. Hydrobiologia 295: 243–254.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wulff F, Stigebrandt A (1989) A time dependent budget model for nutrients in the Baltic Sea. Global biogeochem. Cycles 3: 63–78.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, 106 91, Stockholm, Sweden

    M. Troell, P. Rönnbäck, C. Halling & N. Kautsky

  2. Departemento Acuicultura, Universidad de Los Lagos, Casilla 933, Osorno, Chile

    A. Buschmann

Authors
  1. M. Troell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. P. Rönnbäck
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. C. Halling
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. N. Kautsky
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. A. Buschmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Troell, M., Rönnbäck, P., Halling, C. et al. Ecological engineering in aquaculture: use of seaweeds for removing nutrients from intensive mariculture. Journal of Applied Phycology 11, 89–97 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008070400208

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008070400208

Search

Navigation