Abstract
During the past ten years considerable evidences have accumulated that in addition to monocytes/macrophages, that are implicated in innate immunity and atherogenesis, neuronal cells also exhibit an extensive cellular metabolism. The present study focuses on the major protein players that establish cellular distribution of cholesterol and phospholipids. Evidences are provided that neuronal cells and monocytes/macrophages are equipped with comparable intracellular lipid trafficking mechanisms. Selected examples are presented that trafficking dysfunctions lead to disease development, such as Tangier disease and Niemann-Pick disease type C, or contribute to the pathogenesis of diseases such as Alzheimer disease and atherosclerosis.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Cullis, P. R., Fenske, D. B., and Hope, M. J. 1996. Physical properties and functional roles of lipids in membranes. Pages 1–33, in Vance, D. E., and Vance, J. E. (eds.), Biochemistry of Lipids, Lipoproteins and Membranes, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Voelker, D. R. 1996. Lipid assembly into cell membranes. Pages 391–423, in Vance, D. E., and Vance, J. E. (eds.), Biochemistry of Lipids, Lipoproteins and Membranes, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Liscum, L. and Munn, N. J. 1999. Intracellular cholesterol transport. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1438:19–37.
Simons, K. and Ikonen, E. 1997. Functional rafts in cell membranes. Nature 387:569–572.
Ikonen, E. and Parton, R. G. 2000. Caveolins and cellular cholesterol balance. Traffic 1:212–217.
Simons, K. and Toomre, D. 2000. Lipid rafts and signal transduction. Nat. Rev. 1:31–39.
Vance, J. E., Campenot, R. B., and Vance, D. E. 2000. The synthesis and transport of lipids for axonal growth and nerve regeneration. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1486:84–96.
Röper, K., Corbeil, D., and Huttner, W. B. 2000. Retention of prominin in microvilli reveals distinct cholesterol-based lipid micro-domains in the apical plasma membrane. Nat. Cell Biol. 2:582–592.
Corbeil, D., Röper, K., Fargeas, C. A., Joester, A., and Huttner, W. B. 2001. Prominin: A story of cholesterol, plasma membrane protrusions and human pathology. Traffic 2:82–91.
Powell, K. S. and Latterich, M. 2000. The making and breaking of the endoplasmic reticulum. Traffic 1:689–694.
Lippincott-Schwartz, J. and Zaal, K. J. 2000. Cell cycle maintenance and biogenesis of the Golgi complex. Histochem. Cell. Biol. 114:93–103.
Griffits, G. 2000. Gut thoughts on the Golgi complex. Traffic 1:738–745.
Davis, R. A. and Vance, J. E. 1996. Structure, assembly and secretion of lipoproteins. Pages 473–493, in Vance, D. E., and Vance, J. E. (eds.), Biochemistry of Lipids, Lipoproteins and Membranes, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Fielding, P. E. and Fielding, C. J. 1996. Dynamics of lipoprotein transport in the human circulatory system. Pages 495–516, in Vance, D. E., and Vance, J. E. (eds.), Biochemistry of Lipids, Lipoproteins and Membranes, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Compagnone, N. A. and Mellon, S. H. 2000. Neurosteroids: Biosynthesis and function of these novel neuromodulators. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 21:1–56.
Gagescu, R., Gruenberg, J., and Smythe, E. 2000. Membrane dynamics in endocytosis: Structure-function relationship. Traffic 1:84–88.
Mukherjee, S. and Maxfield, F. R. 2000. Role of membrane organization and membrane domains in endocytic lipid trafficking. Traffic 1:203–211.
Wang, Y., Thiele, C., and Huttner, W. B. 2000. Cholesterol is required for the formation of regulated and constitutive secretory vesicles from the trans-Golgi network. Traffic 1:952–962.
Huijbregts, R. P. H., Topalof, L., and Bankaitis, V. A. 2000. Lipid metabolism and regulation of membrane tarfficking. Traffic 1:195–202.
Hurley, J. H. and Meyer, T. 2001. Subcellular targeting by membrane lipids. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 13:146–152.
Schmitz, G., Kaminski, W. E., and Orsó, E. 2000. ABC transporters in cellular lipid trafficking. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 11:493–501.
Menon, A. K., Watkins, W. E. 3rd, and Hrafnsdottir, S. 2000. Specific proteins are required to translocate phosphatidylcholine bidirectionally across the endoplasmic reticulum. Curr. Biol. 10:241–252.
Khelef, N., Soe, T. T., Quehenberger, O., Beatini, N., Tabas, I., and Maxfield, F. R. 2000. Enrichment of acyl coenzyme A:cholesterol O-acyltransferase near trans-golgi network and endocytic recycling compartment. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 20:1769–1776.
Brown, M. S., Goldstein, J. L., Krieger, M., Ho, Y. K., and Anderson, R. G. 1979. Reversible accumulation of cholesteryl esters in macrophages incubated with acetylated lipoproteins. J. Cell Biol. 82:597–613.
Goldstein, J. L., Brown, M. S., Anderson, R. G. W., Russel, D. W., and Schneider, W. J. 1985. Receptor mediated endocytosis: Concepts emerging from the LDL receptor system. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 1:1–39.
Kruth, H. S. 2001. Macrophage foam cells and atherosclerosis. Front. Biosci. 6:429–455.
Dietschy, J. M. and Turley, S. D. 2001. Cholesterol metabolism in the brain. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 12:105–112.
Liu, P. L., Li, W-P., Machleidt, T., and Anderson, R. G. W. 1999. Identification of caveolin-1 in lipoprotein particles secreted by exocrine cells. Nat. Cell Biol. 1:369–375.
Bevers, E. M., Cumfurius, P., Dekkers, D. W. C., and Zwaal, R. F. A. 1999. Lipid translocation across the plasma membrane of mammalian cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1439:317–330.
Van Meer, G. 2000. Cellular organelles: How lipids get there, and back. Trends Cell Biol. 10:550–552.
Chen, C. Y., Ingram, M. F., Rosal, P. H., and Graham, T. R. 1999. Role for Drs2p, a P-type ATPase and potential aminophospholipid translocase, in yeast late Golgi function. J. Cell Biol. 147:1223–1236.
Wiedmer, T., Zhou, Q., Kwoh, D. Y., and Sims, P. J. 2000. Identification of three new members of the phospholipid scramblase gene family. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1467:244–253.
Ueda, K., Yoshida, A., and Amachi, T. 1999. Recent progress in P-glycoprotein research. Anticancer Drug Res. 14:115–121.
Tessner, T. G. and Stenson, W. F. 2000. Overexpression of MDR1 in an intestinal cell line results in increased cholesterol uptake from micelles. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 267:565–571.
Lam, F. C., Liu, R., Lu, P., Shapiro, A. B., Renoir, J-M., Sharom, F. J., and Reiner, P. B. 2001. β-amyloid efflux mediated by p-glycoprotein. J. Neurochem. 76:1121–1128.
Klucken, J., Büchler, C., Orsó, E., Kaminski, W. E., PorschÖzcürümez, M., Liebisch, G., Kapinsky, M., Diederich, W., Drobnik, W., Dean, M., Allikmets, R., and Schmitz, G. 2000. ABCG1 (ABC8), the human homolog of the Drosophila white gene, is a regulator of macrophage cholesterol and phospholipid transport. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:817–822.
Brügger, B., Sandhoff, R., Wegehingel, S., Gorgas, K., Malsam, J., Helms, J. B., Lehmann, W. D., Nickel, W., and Wieland, F. T. 2000. Evidence for segregation of sphingomyelin and cholesterol during formation of COPI-coated vesicles. J. Cell Biol. 151:507–518.
Diederich, W., Orsó, E., Drobnik, W., and Schmitz, G. 2001. Apolipoprotein Al and HDL3 inhibit spreading of human monocytes through a mechanism that involves cholesterol depletion and regulation of CDC42. Atherosclerosis (in press).
Ledesma, M. D., Simons, K., and Dotti, C. G. 1998. Neuronal polarity: Essential role of protein-lipid complexes in axonal sorting. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:3966–3971.
Ledesma, M. D., Brügger, B., Bunning, C., Wieland, F. T., and Dotti, C. G. 1999. Maturation of the axonal plasma membrane requires upregulation of sphingomyelin synthesis and formation of protein-lipid complexes. EMBO J. 18:1761–1771.
Bradke, F. and Dotti, C. G. 2000. Establishment of neuronal polarity: Lessons from cultured hippocampal neurons. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 10:574–581.
Jareb, M. and Banker, G. 1997. Inhibition of axonal growth by brefeldin A in hippocampal neurons in culture. J. Neurosci. 17:8955–8963.
Dickson, B. J. 2001. Rho GTPases in growth cone guidance. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 11:103–110.
Redmond, L. and Ghosh, A. 2001. The role of Notch and Rho GTPase signaling in the control of dendritic development. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 11:111–117.
Hodgkin, M. N., Clark, J. M., Rose, S., Saqib, K., and Wakelam, M. J. 1999. Characterization of the regulation of phospholipase D activity in the detergent-insoluble fraction of HL60 cells by protein kinase C and small G-proteins. Biochem. J. 339:87–93.
Fiucci, G., Czarny, M., Lavie, Y., Zhao, D., Berse, B., Blusztajn, J. K., and Liscovitch, M. 2000. Changes in phospholipase D isoform activity and expression in multidrug-resistant human cancer cells. Int. J. Cancer 85:882–888.
Czarny, M., Fiucci, G., Lavie, Y., Banno, Y., Nozawa, Y., and Liscovitch, M. 2000. Phospholipase D2: Functional interaction with caveolin in low-density membrane microdomains. FEBS Lett. 467:326–332.
Shaul, P. W. and Anderson, R. G. W. 1998. Role of plasmalemmal caveolae in signal transduction. Am. J. Physiol. 275:L843–L851.
Engelman, J. A., Zhang, X. L., Galbiati, F., Volonté, D., Sotgia, F., Pestell, R. G., Minetti, C., Scherer, P. E., Okamoto, T., and Lisanti, M. P. 1998. Molecular genetics of the caveolin gene family: Implications for human cancers, diabetes, Alzheimer disease, and muscular dystrophy. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 63:1578–1587.
Mikol, D. D., Hong, H. L., Cheng, H-L., and Feldman, E. L. 1999. Caveolin-1 expression in Schwann cells. Glia 27:39–52.
Kiss, A. L. and Geuze, H. J. 1997. Caveolae can be alternative endocytic structures in elicited macrophages. Eur. J. Cell Biol. 73:19–27.
Nishiyama, K., Trapp, B. D., Ikezu, T., Ransohoff, R. M., Tomita, T., Iwatsubo, T., Kanazawa, I., Hsiao, K. K., Lisanti, M. P., and Okamoto, T. 1999. Caveolin-3 upregulation activates beta-secretase-mediated cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein in Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurosci. 19:6538–6548.
Lee, S. J., Liyanage, U., Bickel, P. E., Xia, W., Lansbury, P. T., and Kosik, K. S. 1998. A detergent-insoluble membrane compartment contains A-beta in vivo. Nat. Med. 4:730–734.
Simons, M., Keller, P., De Strooper, B., Beyreuther, K., Dotti, C. G., and Simons, K. 1998. Cholesterol depletion inhibits the generation of beta-amyloid in hippocampal neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:6460–6464.
Moebius, F. F., Fitzky, B. U., and Glossmann, H. 2000. Genetic defects in postsqualene cholesterol biosynthesis. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 11:106–114.
Waterham, H. R. and Wanders, R. J. A. 2000. Biochemical and genetic aspects of 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase and Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1529:340–356.
Herman, G. E. 2000. X-linked dominant disorders of cholesterol biosynthesis in man and mouse. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1529:357–373.
Edwards, P. A., Tabor, D., Kast, H. R., and Venkateswaran, A. 2000. Regulation of gene expression by SREBP and SCAP. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1529:103–113.
Nimpf, J. and Schneider, W. J. 2000. From cholesterol transport to signal transduction: Low density lipoprotein receptor, very low density lipoprotein receptor, and apolipoprotein E receptor-2. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1529:287–298.
Argraves, W. S. 2001. Members of the low density lipoprotein receptor family control diverse physiological processes. Front. Biosci. 6:406–416.
Page, K. J., Hollister, R. D., and Hyman, B. T. 1998. Dissociation of apolipoprotein and apolipoprotein receptor response to lesion in the rat brain: An in situ hybridization study. Neurosci. 85:1161–1171.
Posse de Chaves, E. I., Vance, D. E., Campenot, R. B., Kiss, R. S., and Vance, J. E. 2000. Uptake of lipoproteins for axonal growth of sympathetic neurons. J. Biol. Chem. 275:19883–19890.
Schmitz, G., Torzewski, M., Barlage, S., and Borsukova, H. 2001. Cardiovascular disorders: Atherosclerosis, in Kéri, G. (ed.), Molecular Pathomechanisms and New Tren. in Drug Res. (in press).
Jacobs, M. B. 1994. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor therapy and peripheral neuropathy. Ann. Intern. Med. 120:970.
Ziajka, P. E. and Wehmeier, T. 1998. Peripheral neuropathy and lipid-lowering therapy. South Med. J. 91:667–668.
Mahley, R. W. 1988. Apolipoprotein E: Cholesterol transport protein with expanding role in cell biology. Science 240:622–630.
Popko, B., Goodrum, J. F., Bouldin, T. W., Zhang, S. H., and Maeda, N. 1993. Nerve regeneration occurs in the absence of apolipoprotein E in mice. J. Neurochem. 60:1155–1158.
Goodrum, J. F., Bouldin, T. W., Zhang, S. H., Maeda, N., and Popko, B. 1995. Nerve regeneration and cholesterol utilization occur in the absence of apolipoproteins E and A-I in mice. J. Neurochem. 64:408–416.
Gotthardt, M., Trommsdorff, M., Nevitt, M. F., Shelton, J., Richardson, J. A., Stockinger, W., Nimpf, J., and Herz, J. 2000. Interactions of the low density lipoprotein receptor gene family with cytosolic adaptor and scaffold proteins suggest diverse biological functions in cellular communication and signal transduction. J. Biol. Chem. 275:25616–25624.
Stockinger, W., Brandes, C., Fasching, D., Hermann, M., Gotthardt, M., Herz, J., Schneider, W. J., and Nimpf, J. 2000. The reelin receptor apoER2 recruits JNK-interacting proteins-1 and-2. J. Biol. Chem. 275:25625–25632.
Van Gool, D., De Strooper, B., Van Leuven, F., Triau, E., and Dom, R. 1993. α2-Macroglobulin expression in neuritic-type plaques in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Aging 14:233–237.
Hughes, S. R., Khorkova, O., Goyal, S., Knaeblein, J., Heroux, J., Riedel, N. G., and Sahasrabudhe, S. 1998. α2-macroglobulin associates with β-amyloid peptide and prevents fibril formation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:3275–3280.
Goldstein, J. L., Ho, Y. K., Basu, S. K., and Brown, M. S. 1979. Binding site on macrophages that mediates uptake and degradation of acetylated low density lipoprotein, producing massive cholesterol deposition. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 76:333–337.
De Villiers, W. J. S. and Smart, E. J. 1999. Macrophage scavenger receptors and foam cell formation. J. Leukoc. Biol. 66:740–746.
De Winther, M. P., Van Dijk, K. W., Havekes, L. M., and Hofker, M. H. 2000. Macrophage scavenger receptor class A: A multifunctional receptor in atherosclerosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 20:290–297.
Jessup, W. and Kritharides, L. 2000. Metabolism of oxidized LDL by macrophages. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 11:473–481.
Bhakdi, S., Dorweiler, B., Kirchmann, R., Torzewski, J., Weise, E., Tmum-Jensen, J., Walev, I., and Wieland, E. 1995. On the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: Enzymatic transformation of human low density lipoprotein to an atherogenic moiety. J. Exp. Med. 182:1959–1971.
Kovanen, P. T. 1995. Role of mast cells in atherosclerosis. Pages 132–170, in Clinical Immunology, Vol. 62, Human Basophils and Mast Cells, Clinical Aspects, Karger, Basel.
Kapinsky, M., Torzewski, M., Büchler, C., Duong, C. Q., Rothe, G., and Schmitz, G. 2001. Enzymatically degraded LDL preferentially binds to CD14highCD16+ monocytes and induces foam cell formation mediated only in part by the class B scavengerreceptor CD36. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. (in press)
Khoo, J. C., Miller, E., McLoughlin, P., and Steinberg, D. 1988. Enhanced macrophage uptake of low density lipoprotein after self-aggregation. Arteriosclerosis 8:348–358.
Mamo, J. C., Elsegood, C. L., Gennat, H. C., and Yu, K. 1996. Degradation of chylomicron remnants by macrophages occurs via phagocytosis. Biochemistry 35:10210–10214.
Tabas, I., Lim, S., Xu, X. X., and Maxfield, F. R. 1990. Endocytosed beta-VLDL and LDL are delivered to different intracellular vesicles in mouse peritoneal macrophages. J. Cell Biol. 111:929–940.
Myers, J. N., Tabas, I., Jones, N. L., and Maxfield, F. R. 1993. Beta-very low density lipoprotein is sequestered in surface-connected tubules in mouse peritoneal macrophages. J. Cell Biol. 123:1389–1402.
Kruth, H. S., Skarlatos, S. I., Lilly, K., Chang, J., and Ifrim, I. 1995. Sequestration of acetylated LDL and cholesterol crystals by human monocyte-derived macrophages. J. Cell Biol. 129:133–145.
Stangl, H., Hyatt, M., and Hobbs, H. H. 1999. Transport of lipids from high and low density lipoproteins via scavenger receptor-BI. J. Biol. Chem. 274:32692–32698.
Williams, D. L., Connelly, M. A., Temel, R. E., Swarnakar, S., Phillips, M. C., de la Llera-Moya, M., and Rothblat, G. H. 1999. Scavenger receptor BI and cholesterol trafficking. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 10:329–339.
Trigatti, B., Rigotti, A., and Krieger, M. 2000. The role of the high-density lipoprotein receptor SR-BI in cholesterol metabolism. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 11:123–131.
Swarnakar, S., Temel, R. E., Connelly, M. A., Azhar, S., and Williams, D. L. 1999. Scavenger receptor class B, type I, mediates selective uptake of low density lipoprotein cholesteryl ester. J. Biol. Chem. 274:29733–29739.
Acton, S., Rigotti, A., Landschulz, K. T., Xu, S., Hobbs, H. H., and Krieger, M. 1996. Identification of scavenger receptor SR-BI as a high density lipoprotein receptor. Science 271:518–520.
Gu, X., Trigatti, B., Xu, S., Acton, S., Babitt, J., and Krieger, M. 1998. The efficient cellular uptake of high density lipoprotein lipids via scavenger receptor class B type I requires not only receptor-mediated surface binding but also receptor-specific lipid transfer mediated by its extracellular domain. J. Biol. Chem. 273:26338–26348.
Graf, G. A., Connell, P. M., van der Westhuyzen, D. R., and Smart, E. J. 1999. The class B, type I scavenger receptor promotes the selective uptake of high density cholesteryl ethers into caveolae. J. Biol. Chem. 274:12043–12048.
Rodrigueza, W. V., Thuahnai, S. T., Temel, R. E., Lund-Katz, S., Phillips, M. C., and Williams, D. L. 1999. Mechanism of scavenger receptor class B type I-mediated selective uptake of cholesteryl esters from high density lipoprotein to adrenal cells. J. Biol. Chem. 274:20344–20350.
Fielding, C. J. and Fielding, P. E. 1997. Intracellular cholesterol transport. J. Lipid Res. 38:1503–1521.
Delamatre, J. G., Carter, R. M., and Hornick, C. A. 1993. Evidence that a neutral cholesteryl ester hydrolase is responsible for the extralysosomal hydrolysis of high-density lipoprotein cholesteryl ester in rat hepatoma cells (Fu5AH). J. Cell Physiol. 157:164–168.
Lambert, G., Chase, M. B., Dugi, K., Bensaduon, A., Brewer, H. B. Jr., and Santamarina-Fojo, S. 1999. Hepatic lipase promotes the selective uptake of high density lipoprotein-cholesteryl esters via the scavenger receptor B1. J. Lipid Res. 40:1294–1303.
Collet, X., Tall, A. R., Serajuddin, H., Guendouzi, K., Royer, L., Oliveira, H., Barbaras, R., Jiang, X. C., and Francone, O. L. 1999. Remodeling of HDL by CETP in vivo and by CETP and hepatic lipase in vitro results in enhanced uptake of HDL CE by cells expressing scavenger receptor B-I. J. Lipid Res. 40:1185–1193.
Connelly, M. A., Klein, S. M., Azhar, S., Abumrad, N. A., and Williams, D. L. 1999. Comparison of class B scavenger receptors, CD36 and SR-BI, shows that both receptors mediate HDL-cholesteryl ester selective uptake but SR-BI exhibits a unique enhancement of cholesteryl ester uptake. J. Biol. Chem. 274:41–47.
Aitman T. J., Glazier, A. M., Wallace, C. A., Cooper, L. D., Norsworthy, P. J., Wahid, F. N., Al-Majali, K. M., Trembling, P. M., Mann, C. J., Shoulders, C. C. et al. 1999. Identification of Cd36 (Fat) as an insulin-resistance gene causing defective fatty acid and glucose metabolism in hypertensive rats. Nat. Genet. 21:76–83.
Silverstein, R. L. and Febbraio, M. 2000. CD36 and atherosclerosis. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 11:483–491.
Wolfbauer, G., Albers, J. J., and Oram, J. F. 1999. Phospholipid transfer protein enhances removal of cellular cholesterol and phospholipids by high-density lipoprotein apolipoproteins. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1439:65–76.
Frank, P. G. and Marcel, Y. L. 2000. Apolipoprotein A-I: Structure—function relationships. J. Lipid Res. 41:853–872.
Yokoyama, S. 2000. Release of cellular cholesterol: Molecular mechanism for cholesterol homeostasis in cells and in the body. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1529:231–244.
Segrest, J. P., Li, L., Arantharamaiah, G. M., Harvey, S. C., Liadaki, K. N., and Zannis, V. 2000. Structure and function of apolipoprotein A-I and high-density lipoprotein. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 11:105–115.
Bodzioch, M., Orsó, E., Klucken, J., Langmann, T., Böttcher, A., Diederich, W., Drobnik, W., Barlage, S., Büchler, C., Porsch-Özcürümez, M., et al. 1999. The gene encoding ATPbinding cassette transporter 1 is mutated in Tangier disease. Nat. Genet. 22:347–351.
Brooks-Wilson, A., Marcil, M., Clee, S. M., Zhang, L-H., Roomp, K., van Dam, M., Yu, L., Brewer, C., Collins, J. A., Molhuizen, H. O. F. et al. 1999. Mutations in ABC1 in Tangier disease and familial high-density lipoprotein deficiency. Nat. Genet. 22:336–345.
Rust, S., Rosier, M., Funke, H., Real, J., Amoura, Z., Piette, JC., Deleuze, J-F., Brewer, H. B., Duverger, N., Denèfle, P. et al. 1999. Tangier disease is caused by mutations in the gene encoding ATP-binding cassette tarnsporter 1. Nat. Genet. 22:352–355.
Lawn, R. M., Wade, D. P., Garvin, M. R., Wang, X., Schwartz, K., Porter, J. G., Seilhamer, J. J., Vaughan, A. M., and Oram, J. F. 1999. The Tangier disease gene product ABC1 controls the cellular apolipoprotein-mediated lipid removal pathway. J. Clin. Invest. 104:R25–R31.
Orsó, E., Broccardo, C., Kaminski, W. E., Böttcher, A., Liebisch, G., Drobnik, W., Götz, A., Chambenoit, O., Diederich, W., Langmann, T. et al. 2000. Transport of lipids from Golgi to plasma membrane is defective in Tangier disease patients and Abc1-deficient mice. Nat. Genet. 24:192–196.
Fielding, P. E., Nagao, K., Hakamata, H., Chimini, G., and Fielding, C. J. 2000. A two-step mechanism for free cholesterol and phospholipid efflux from human vascular cells to apolipoprotein A-I. Biochemistry 39:14113–14120.
Oram, J. F. 2000. Tangier disease and ABCA1. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1529:321–330.
Schmitz, G. and Langmann, T. 2001. Structure, function and regulation of the ABC1 gene product. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 12:129–140.
Rosenberg, M. F., Callaghan, R., Ford, R. C., and Higgins, C. F. 1997. Structure of the multidrug resistance P-glycoprotein to 2.5 nm resolution determined by electron microscopy and image analysis. J. Biol. Chem. 272:10685–10694.
Remaley, A. T., Stonik, J. A., Demosky, S. J., Neufeld, E. B., Bocharov, A. V., Vishnyakova, T. G., Eggerman, T. L., Patterson, A. P., Duverger, N. J., Santamarina-Fojo, S. et al. 2001. Apolipoprotein specificity for lipid efflux by the human ABCA1 transporter. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 280:818–823.
Langmann, T., Klucken, J., Reil, M., Liebisch, G., Luciani, MF., Chimini, G., Kaminski, W. E., and Schmitz, G. 1999. Molecular cloning of the human ATP-binding cassette transporter 1 (hABC1): Evidence for sterol-dependent regulation in macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 257:29–33.
Michikawa, M., Fan, Q. W., Isobe, I., and Yanagisawa, K. 2000. Apolipoprotein E exhibits isoform-specific promotion of lipid efflux from astrocytes in culture. J. Neurochem. 74:1008–1016.
Ji, Y., Jian, B., Wang, N., Sun, Y., Moya, M. D., Phillips, M. C., Rothblat, G. H., Swaney, J. B., and Tall, A. R. 1997. Scavenger receptor BI promotes high density lipoprotein-mediated cellular cholesterol efflux. J. Biol. Chem. 272:20982–20985.
Jian, B., de la Llera-Moya, M., Ji, Y., Wang, N., Phillips, M. C., Swaney, J. B., Tall, A. R., and Rothblat, G. H. 1998. Scavenger receptor class B type I as a modulator of cellular cholesterol efflux to lipoproteins and phospholipid acceptors. J. Biol. Chem. 273:5599–5606.
Yancey, P. G., Bielicki, J. K., Johnson, W. J., Lund-Katz, S., Palgunachari, M. N., Arantharamaiah, G. M., Segrest, J. P., Phillips, M. C., and Rothblat, G. H. 1995. Efflux of cellular cholesterol and phospholipid to lipid-free apolipoproteins and class A amphipathic peptides. Biochemistry 34:7955–7965.
Mendez, A. J., Oram, J. F., and Bierman, E. L. 1991. Protein kinase C as a mediator of high density lipoprotein receptor-dependent efflux of intracellular cholesterol. J. Biol. Chem. 266:10104–10111.
Choi, S. W., Park, H. Y., Rubeiz, N. G., Sachs, D., and Gilchrest, B. A. 1998. Protein kinase C-alpha levels are inversely associated with growth rate in cultured human dermal fibroblasts. J. Dermatol. Sci. 18:54–63.
Deeg, M. A., Garwer, W. S., Bierman, E. L., and Oram, J. F. 1993. HDL stimulates phosphorylation of 18 and 80 kDa proteins in cholesterol-loaded human skin fibroblasts. (Abstract) Circulation 88:1215.
Deeg, M. A., Bowen, R. F., Oram, J. F., and Bierman, E. L. 1997. High density lipoproteins stimulate mitogen activated protein kinases in human skin fibroblasts. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 17:1667–1674.
Walter, M., Reinecke, H., Gerdes, U., Nofer, J-R., Hobbel, G., Seedorf, U., and Assmann, G. 1996. Defective regulation of phosphatidylcholine-specific phospholipases C and D in a kindred with Tangier disease. Evidence for the involvement of phosphatidylcholine breakdown in HDL-mediated cholesterol efflux mechanisms. J. Clin. Invest. 98:2315–2323.
Drobnik, W., Möllers, C., Resink, T., and Schmitz, G. 1995. Activation of phosphatidyl-inositol-specific phospholipase C in response to high density and low density lipoproteins is markedly reduced in cultured fibroblasts from Tangier patients. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 15:1369–1377.
Möllers, C., Drobnik, W., Resink, T., and Schmitz, G. 1995. High density and low density lipoprotein-mediated signal transduction in cultured human skin fibroblasts. Cell Signal. 7:695–707.
Mott, S., Yu, L., Marcil, M., Boucher, B., Rondeau, C., and Genest, J. Jr. 2000. Decreased cellular cholesterol efflux is a common cause of familial hypoalphalipoproteinemia: Role of the ABCA1 gene mutations. Atherosclerosis 152:457–468.
Drobnik, W., Liebisch, G., Biederer, C., Trümbach, B., Rogler, G., Müller, P., and Schmitz, G. 1999. Growth and cell cycle abnormalities of fibroblasts from Tangier disease patients. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 19:28–38.
Nofer, J-R., Fobker, M., Höbbel, G., Voss, R., Wolinska, I., Tepel, M., Zidek, W., Junker, R., Seedorf, U., von Eckardtstein, A. et al. 2000. Activation of phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C by HDL-associated lysosphingolipid. Involvement in mitogenesis but not in cholesterol efflux. Biochemistry 39:15199–15207.
Schmitz, G., Robenek, H., Lohmann, U., and Assmann, G. 1985. Interaction of high density lipoproteins with cholesteryl ester-laden macrophages: Biochemical and morphological characterization of cell surface receptor binding, endocytosis and resecretion of high density lipoproteins by macrophages. EMBO J. 4:613–622.
Takahashi, Y. and Smith, J. D. 1999. Cholesterol efflux to apolipoprotein Al involves endocytosis and resecretion in a calcium-dependent pathway. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:11358–11363.
Ho, Y. K., Brown, M. S., and Goldstein, J. L. 1980. Hydrolysis and excretion of cytoplasmic cholesteryl esters by macrophages: stimulation by high density lipoprotein and other agents. J. Lipid Res. 21:391–398.
Robenek, H. and Schmitz, G. 1988. Ca++ antagonists and ACAT inhibitors promote cholesterol efflux from macrophages by different mechanisms. II. Characterization of intracellular morphologic changes. Arteriosclerosis 8:57–67.
Kruth, H. S., Skarlatos, S. I., Gaynor, P. M., and Gamble, W. 1994. Production of cholesterol-enriched nascent high density lipoproteins by human monocyte-derived macrophages is a mechanism that contributes to macrophage cholesterol efflux. J. Biol. Chem. 269:24511–24518.
Albers, J. J., Wolfbauer, G., Cheung, M. C., Day, J. R., Ching, A. F., Lok, S., and Tu, A. Y. 1995. Functional expression of human and mouse plasma phospholipid transfer protein: Effect of recombinant and plasma PLTP on HDL subspecies.
Albers, J. J., Tollefson, J. H., Wolfbauer, G., and Albright, R. E. jr. 1992. Cholesteryl ester transfer protein in human brain. Int. J. Clin. Lab. Res. 21:264–266.
Yamada, T., Kawata, M., Arai, H., Fukasawa, M., Inoue, K., and Sato, T. 1995. Astroglial localization of cholesteryl ester transfer protein in normal and Alzheimer's disease brain tissues. Acta Neuropathol. (Berl.) 90:633–636.
Diczfalusy, U., Lund, E., Lütjohann, D., and Björkhem, I. 1996. Novel pathways for elimination of cholesterol by extrahepatic formation of side-chain oxidized oxysterols. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. Suppl. 226:9–17.
Björkhem, I., Diczfalusy, U., and Lütjohann, D. 1999. Removal of cholesterol from extrahepatic sources by oxidative mechanisms. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 10:161–165.
Cohen, J. C. 1999. Contribution of cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase to the regulation of lipoprotein metabolism. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 10:303–307.
Papassotiropoulos, A., Lütjohann, D., Bagli, M., Locatelli, S., Jessen, F., Rao, M. L., Maier, W., Björkhem, I., von Bergmann, K. et al. 2000. Plasma 24S-hydroxycholesterol: A peripheral indicator of neuronal degeneration and potential state marker for Alzheimer's disease. NeuroReport 11:1959–1962.
Brown, A. J. and Jessup, W. 1999. Oxysterols and atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 142:1–28.
Lagace, T. A., Byers, D. M., Cook, H. W., and Ridgway, N. D. 1997. Altered regulation of cholesterol and cholesteryl ester synthesis in Chinese hamster ovary cells overexpressing the oxysterol-binding protein is dependent on the pleckstrin homology domain. Biochem. J. 326:205–213.
Levine, T. P. and Munro, S. 1998. The pleckstrin homology domain of oxysterol-binding protein recognises a determinant specific to Golgi membranes. Curr. Biol. 8:729–739.
Ridgway, N. D., Dawson, P. A., Ho, Y. K., Brown, M. S., and Goldstein, J. L. 1992. Translocation of oxysterol binding protein to Golgi apparatus triggered by ligand binding. J. Cell Biol. 116:307–319.
Dawson, P. A., van der Westhuyzen, D. R., Goldstein, J. L., and Brown, M. S. 1989. Purification of oxysterol binding protein from hamster liver cytosol. J. Biol. Chem. 264:9046–9052.
Ridgway, N. D. and Lagace, T. A. 1995. Brefeldin-A renders Chinese hamster ovary cells insensitive to transcriptional suppression by 25-hydroxycholesterol. J. Biol. Chem. 270:8023–8031.
Fang, M., Kearns, B. G., Gedvilaite, A., Kagiwada, S., Kearns, M., Fung, M. K., and Bankaitis, V. A. 1996. Kes1p shares homology with human oxysterolbinding protein and participates in a novel regulatory pathway for yeast Golgi-derived transport vesicle biogenesis. EMBO J. 15:6447–6459.
Laitinen, S., Olkkonen, V. M., Ehnholm, C., and Ikonen, E. 1999. Family of human oxysterol binding protein (OSBP) homologues. A novel member implicated in brain sterol metabolism. J. Lipid Res. 40:2204–2211.
Olkkonen, V. M. and Ikonen, E. 2000. Genetic defects of intracellular-membrane transport. N. Engl. J. Med. 343:1095–1104.
Pfanner, N., Orci, L., Glick, B. S., Amherdt, M., Arden, S. R., Malhotra, V., and Rothman, J. E. 1989. Fatty acyl-coenzyme A is required for budding of transport vesicles from Golgi cisternae. Cell 59:95–102.
Ostermann, J., Orci, L., Tani, K., Amherdt, M., Ravazzola, M., Elazar, Z., and Rothman, J. E. 1993. Stepwise assembly of functionally active transport vesicles. Cell 75:1015–1025.
Thiele, C., Hannah, M. J., Fahrenholz, F., and Huttner, W. B. 2000. Cholesterol binds to synaptophysin and is required for biogenesis of synaptic vesicles. Nat. Cell Biol. 2:42–49.
Weigert, R., Siletta, M. G., Spano, S., Turacchio G., Cericola, C., Colanzi, A., Senatore, S., Mancici, R., Polishchuk, E. V., Salmona, M. et al. 1999. CtBP/BARS induces fission of Golgi membranes by acylating lysophosphatidic acid. Nature 402:429–433.
Schmidt, A., Wolde, M., Thiele, C., Fest, W., Kratzin, H., Podtelejnikov, A. V., Witke, W., Huttner, W. B., and Söling, H-D. 1999. Endophilin I mediates synaptic vesicle formation by transfer of arachidonate to lysophosphatidic acid. Nature 401:133–141.
Huttner, W. B. and Schmidt, A. 2000. Lipids, lipid modification and lipid-protein interaction in membrane budding and fission—insights from the roles of endophilin A1 and synaptophysin in synaptic vesicle endocytosis. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 10:543–551.
Kobayashi, T., Beuchat, M. H., Lindsay, M., Frias, S., Palmiter, R. D., Sakuraba, H., Parton, R. G., and Gruenberg, J. 1999. Late endosomal membranes rich in lysobisphosphatidic acid regulate cholesterol transport. Nat. Cell Biol. 1:113–118.
Hoekstra, D. and IJzendoom, S. C. D. 2000. Lipid trafficking and sorting: How cholesterol is filling gaps. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 12:496–502.
Rogers, D. P. and Bankaitis, V. A. 2000. Phospholipid transfer proteins and physiological functions. Int. Rev. Cytol. 197:35–81.
Li, X., Xie, Z., and Bankaitis, V. A. 2000. Phosphatidylinositol/phosphatidylcholine transfer proteins in yeast. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1486:55–71.
Alb, J. G. Jr., Kearns, M. A., and Bankaitis, V. A. 1996. Phospholipid metabolism and membrane dynamics. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 8:534–541.
Seedorf, U., Ellinghaus, P., and Nofer, J-R. 2000. Sterol carrier protein-2. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1486:45–54.
Baum, C. L., Reschly, E. J., Gayen, A. K., Groh, M. E., and Schadick, K. 1997. Sterol carrier protein-2 overexpression enhances sterol cycling and inhibits cholesterol ester synthesis and high density lipoprotein cholesterol secretion. J. Biol. Chem. 272:6490–6498.
Seedorf, U., Raabe, M., Ellinghaus, P., Kannenberg, F., Fobker, M., Engel, T., Denis, S., Wouters, F., Wirtz, K. W., Wanders, R. J. et al. 1998. Defective peroxisomal catabolism of branched fatty acyl coenzyme A in mice lacking the sterol carrier protein-2/sterol carrier protein-x gene function. Genes Dev. 12:1189–1201.
Uittenbogaard, A., Ying, Y., and Smart, E. J. 1998. Characterization of a cytosolic heat-shock protein-caveolin chaperone complex. Involvement in cholesterol trafficking. J. Biol. Chem. 273:6525–6532.
Blanchette-Mackie, E. J. and Scow, R. O. 1983. Movement of lipolytic products to mitochondria in brown adipose tissue of young rats: An electron microscope study. J. Lipid Res. 24:229–244.
Scow, R. O. and Blanchette-Mackie, E. J. 1991. Transport of fatty acids and monoacylglycerols in white and brown adipose tissue. Brain Res. Bull. 27:487–491.
Schmitz, G. and Müller, G. 1991. Structure and function of lamellar bodies, lipid-protein complexes involved in storage and secretion of cellular lipids. J. Lipid Res. 32:1539–1570.
Amende, L. M., Blanchette-Mackie, E. J., Chernick, S. S., and Scow, R. O. 1985. Effect of pH on visualization of fatty acids as myelin figures in mouse adipose tissue by freeze-fracture electron microscopy. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 837:94–102.
Pietrini, V., Rizzuto, N., Vergani, C., Zen, F., and Milone, F. F. 1985. Neuropathy in Tangier disease: A clinicopathologic study and a review of the literature. Acta Neurol. Scand. 72:495–505.
Gibbels, E., Schaefer, H. E., Runne, U., Schröder, J. M., Haupt, W. F., and Assmann, G. 1985. Severe polyneuropathy in Tangier disease mimicking syringomyelia or leprosy. Clinical, biochemical, electrophysiological, and morphological evaluation, including electron microscopy of nerve, muscle, and skin biopsies. J. Neurol. 232:283–294.
Schmitz, G., Assmann, G., Robenek, H., and Brennhausen, B. 1985. Tangier disease: A disorder of intracellular membrane traffic. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82:6305–6309.
Robenek, H. and Schmitz, G. 1991. Abnormal processing of Golgi elements and lysosomes in Tangier disease. Arterioscler. Thromb. 11:1007–1020.
Schmitz, G., Fischer, H., Beuck, M., Hoecker, K-P., and Robenek, H. 1990. Dysregulation of lipid metabolism in Tangier-monocyte derived macrophages. Atherosclerosis 10:1010–1019.
Christiansen-Weber, T. A., Voland, J. R., Wu, Y., Ngo, K., Roland, B. L., Nguyen, S., Peterson, P. A., and Fung-Leung, W-P. 2000. Functional loss of ABCA1 in mice causes severe placental malformation, aberrant lipid distribution, and kidney glomerulonephritis as well as high-density lipoprotein cholesterol deficiency. Am. J. Pathol. 157:1017–1029.
Liscum, L. and Klansek, J. J. 1998. Niemann-Pick disease type C. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 9:131–135.
Neufeld, E. B., Wastney, M., Patel, S., Suresh, S., Cooney, A. M., Dwyer, N. K., Roff, C. F., Ohno, K., Morris, J. A., Carstea, E. D. et al. 1999. The Niemann-Pick C1 protein resides in a vesicular compartment linked to retrograde transport of multiple lysosomal cargo. J. Biol. Chem. 274:9627–9635.
Blanchette-Mackie, E. J. 2000. Intracellular cholesterol trafficking: Role of the NPC1 protein. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1486:171–183.
Ory, D. S. 2000. Niemann-Pick type C: A disorder of cellular cholesterol trafficking. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1529:331–339.
Meresse, S., Gorvel, J. P., and Chavrier, P. 1995. The rab7 GTPase resides on a vesicular compartment connected to lysosomes. J. Cell Sci. 108:3349–3358.
Lombardi, D., Soldati, T., Riederer, M. A., Goda, Y., Zerial, M., and Pfeiffer, S. R. 1993. Rab9 functions in transport between late endosomes and the trans Golgi network. EMBO J. 12:677–682.
Garver, W. S., Erickson, R. P., Wilson, J. M., Colton, T. L., Hossain, G. S., Kozloski, M. A., and Heidenreich, R. A. 1997. Altered expression of caveolin-1 and increased cholesterol in detergent insoluble membrane fractions from liver in mice with Niemann-Pick disease type C. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1361:272–280.
Garver, W. S., Heidenreich, R. A., Erickson, R. P., Thomas, M. A., and Wilson, J. M. 2000. Localization of the murine Niemann-Pick C1 protein to two distinct intracellular compartments. J. Lipid Res. 41:673–687.
Osborne, T. F. and Rosenfeld, J. M. 1998. Related membrane domains in proteins of sterol sensing and cell signaling provide a glimpse of treasures still buried within the dynamic realm of intracellular metabolic regulation. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 9:137–140.
Carstea, E. D., Morris, J. A., Coleman, K. G., Loftus, S. K., Zhang, D., Cummings, C., Gu, J., Rosenfeld, M. A., Pavan, W. J., Krizman, D. B. et al. 1997. Niemann-Pick C1 disease gene: Homology to mediators of cholesterol homeostasis. Science 277:228–231.
Ioannou, Y. A. 2000. The structure and function of the Niemann-Pick C1 protein. Mol. Genet. Metab. 71:175–181.
Morris, J. A., Zhang, D., Coleman, K. G., Nagle, J., Pentchev, P. G., and Carstea, E. D. 1999. The genomic organization and polymorphism analysis of the human Niemann-Pick C1 gene. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 261:493–498.
Patel, S. C., Suresh, S., Kumar, U., Hu, C. Y., Cooney, A., Blanchette-Mackie, E. J., Neufeld, E. B., Patel, R. C., Brady, R. O., Patel, Y. C. et al. 1999. Localization of Niemann-Pick C1 protein in astrocytes: Implications for neuronal degeneration in Niemann-Pick type C disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:1657–1662.
Liu, Y., Wu, Y. P., Wada, R., Neufeld, E. B., Mullin, K. A., Howard, A. C., Pentchev, P. G., Vanier, M. T., Suzuki, K., and Proia, R. L. 2000. Alleviation of neuronal ganglioside storage does not improve the clinical course of the Niemann-Pick C disease mouse. Hum. Mol. Genet. 9:1087–1092.
Naureckiene, S., Sleat, D. E., Lackland, H., Fensom, A., Vanier, M. T., Wattiaux, R., Jadot, M., and Lobel, P. 2000. Identification of HE1 as the second gene of Niemann-Pick C disease. Science 290:2298–2301.
St. George-Hyslop, P. H., Farrer, L. A., and Goedert, M. 2001. Alzheimer disease and the frontotemporal dementias: Diseases with cerebral deposition of fibrillar proteins. Pages 5875–5899, in Scriver, C. R., Beaudet, A. L., Sly, W. S., Valie, D., Childs, B., Kinzler, K. W., and Vogelstein, B. (eds.) The Metabolic & Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease, 8th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Nunan, J. and Small, D. H. 2000. Regulation of APP cleavage by α-, α-and α-secretases. FEBS Lett. 483:6–10.
Yu, G., Nishimura, M., Arawaka, S., Levitan, D., Zhang, L., Tandon, A., Song, Y. Q., Rogaeva, E., Chen, F., Kawarai, T. et al. 2000. Nicastrin modulates presenilin-mediated notch/glp-1 signal transduction and βAPP processing. Nature 407:48–54.
Schenk, D. 2000. A partner for presenilin. Nature 407:34–35.
Lambert, J-C., Mann, D., Goumidi, L., Harris, J., Amouyel, P., Iwatsubo, T., Lendon, C., and Chartier-Harlin, M-C. 2001. Effect of the APOE promoter polymorphisms on cerebral amyloid peptide deposition in Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 357:608–609.
Curtiss, L. K. and Boisvert, W. A. 2000. Apolipoprotein E and atherosclerosis. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 11:243–251.
Saunders, A. M. 2000. Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer disease: An update on genetic and functional analyses. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 59:751–758.
Zerangue, N., Malan, M. J., Fried, S. R., Dazin, P. F., Jan, Y. N., Jan, L. Y., and Schwappach, B. 2001. Analysis of endoplasmic reticulum trafficking signals by combinatorial screening in mammalian cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:2431–2436.
Bales, K. R., Verina, T., Dodel, R. C., Du, Y., Altsteil, L., Bender, M., Hyslop, P., Johnstone, E. M., Little, S. P., Cummins, D. J. et al. 1997. Lack of apolipoprotein E dramatically reduces amyloid beta-peptide deposition. Nat. Genet. 17:263–264.
Chen, M. and Fernandez, H. L. 2001. Where do Alzheimer's plaques and tangles come from? Aging-induced protein degradation inefficiency.
Ilveskoski, E., Jarvinen, O., Sisto, T., Karhunen, P. J., Laippala, P., and Lehtimaki, T. 2000. Apolipoprotein E polymorphism and atherosclerosis: Association of the ε4 allele with defects in the internal elastic lamina. Atherosclerosis 153:155–160.
Stöhr, J., Schindler, G., Rothe, G., and Schmitz, G. 1998. Enhanced upregulation of the Fc gamma receptor Illa (CD16a) during in vitro differentiation of ApoE4/4 monocytes. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 18:1424–1432.
Rothe, G., Gabriel, H., Kovács, E., Klucken, J., Stöhr, J., Kindermann, W., and Schmitz, G. 1996. Peripheral blood mononuclear phagocyte subpopulations as cellular markers in hypercholesterolemia. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 16:1437–1447.
Rothe, G., Herr, A. S., Stöhr, J., Abletshauser, C., Weidinger, G., and Schmitz, G. 1999. A more mature phenotype of blood mononuclear phagocytes is induced by fluvastatin treatment in hypercholesterolemic patients with coronary heart disease. Atherosclerosis 144:251–261.
Fingerle, G., Pforte, A., Passlick, B., Blumenstein, M., Strobel, M., and Ziegler-Heitbrock, H. W. 1993. The novel subset of CD14+/CD16+ blood monocytes is expanded in sepsis patients. Blood 82:3170–3176.
Vanham, G., Edmonds, K., Qing, L., Hom, D., Toossi, Z., Jones, B., Daley, C. L., Huebner, B., Kestens, L., Gigase, P. et al. 1996. Generalized immune activation in pulmonary tuberculosis: Co-activation with HIV infection. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 103:30–34.
Schmid, I., Baldwin, G. C., Jacobs, E. L., Isacescu, V., Neagos, N., Giorgi, J. V., and Glaspy, J. A. 1995. Alterations in phenotype and cell-surface antigen expression levels of human monocytes: Differential response to in vivo administration of rhM-CSF or rhGM-CSF. Cytometry 22:103–110.
Saleh, M. N., Goldman, S. J., LoBuglio, A. F., Beall, A. C., Sabio, H., McCord, M. C., Minasian, L., Alpaugh, R. K., Weiner, L. M., and Munn, D. H. 1995. CD16+ monocytes in patients with cancer: Spontaneous elevation and pharmacologic induction by recombinant human macrophage colonystimulating factor. Blood 85:2910–2917.
Scuteri, A., Bos, A. J. G., Zonderman, A. B., Brant, L. J., Lakatta, E. G., and Fleg, J. L. 2001. Is the apoE4 allele an independent predictor of coronary events? Am. J. Med. 110:28–32.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Schmitz, G., Orsó, E. Intracellular Cholesterol and Phospholipid Trafficking: Comparable Mechanisms in Macrophages and Neuronal Cells. Neurochem Res 26, 1045–1068 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012357106398
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012357106398