Abstract
This paper reviews previous studies on iron and steel oxidation in oxygen or air at high temperatures. Oxidation of iron at temperatures above 700°C follows the parabolic law with the development of a three-layered hematite/magnetite/wüstite scale structure. However, at temperatures below 700°C, inconsistent results have been reported, and the scale structures are less regular, significantly affected by sample-preparation methods. Oxidation of carbon steel is generally slower than iron oxidation. For very short-time oxidation, the scale structures are similar to those formed on iron, but for longer-time oxidation, because of the less adherent nature, the scale structures developed are typically much more complex. Continuous-cooling conditions, after very short-time oxidation, favor the retention of an adherent scale, suggesting that the method proposed by Kofstad for deriving the rate constant using continuous cooling or heating-oxidation data is more appropriate for steel oxidation. Oxygen availability has certain effects on iron and steel oxidation. Under continuous cooling conditions, the final scale structure is found to be a function of the starting temperature for cooling and the cooling rate. Different scale structures develop across the width of a hot-rolled strip because of the varied oxygen availability and cooling rates at different locations.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
H. Wiesinger, Metall. Plant Technol. 23, 44–46 (2000).
J. R. Stubbles, AISE Steel Technol. pp. 44–50 (1999).
I. Christmas, Metall. Plant Technol. 23, 32–34 (2000).
P. F. Marcus and J. J. Innace, World Steel Dynamics, June 4, 2001.
Iron & Steel in China and Australia (The East Asia Analytical Unit, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australia, 1995).
W. L. Roberts, Flat Processing of Steel (Marcel Dekker, New York, 1988).
I. Gupta and D. Bhattacharya, in Metallurgy of Vacuum-Degassed Steel Products, R. Pradhan, ed. (The Minerals, Metals, and Materials Society, Warrensdale, PA, 1990), pp. 43–72.
V. B. Ginzburg, Steel-Rolling Technology: Theory and Practice (Marcel Dekker, New York, 1989).
M. M. Wolf, Iron Steelmaker 27, 63–64 (2000).
M. M. Wolf, Iron Steelmaker 27, 114–115 (2000).
R. Y. Chen and W. Y. D. Yuen, Oxid. Met. 53, 539(2000).
R.Y. Chen, and W. Y. D. Yuen, Oxid. Met. 56, 89(2001).
R. K. Singh Raman, unpublished results, BHP Steel—University of New South Wales Collaboration Project, 1995.
K. Sachs and C. W. Tuck, Reheating for Hot Working (The Iron and Steel Institute, London, 1968), pp. 1–17.
H. Abuluwefa, R. I. L. Guthrie, and F. Mucciardi, 34th MWSP. Conf. Proc., ISS-AIME, 30, (1993), pp. 453–469.
V. H. J. Lee, PhD Thesis, The University of New South Wales, Australia, 1997.
V. H. J. Lee, D. J. Young, and B. Gleeson, Conf. Proc. Corrosion '99, Report No. 066 (1999), p. 8.
H. T. Abuluwefa, R. I. L. Guthrie, and F. Ajersch, Metall. Mater. Trans. 28A, 1633(1997).
H. T. Abuluwefa, R. I. L. Guthrie, S. Yue, M. Isac, and J. Kozinski, 41st MWSP Conf. Proc. ISS 37, (1999), pp. 355–365.
J. Stringer, Metall. Rev. 11 113(1966).
H. J. Grabke, V. Leroy, and H. Viefhaus, ISIJ Intern. 35, 95(1995).
R. Y. Chen, and W. Y. D. Yuen, unpublished results (2001).
J. Kucera, M. Hajduga, J. Glowacki, and P. Broz, Z. Metall. 90, 514(1999).
J. A. von Fraunhofer, and G. A. Pickup, High-Temperature Materials Coatings and Surface Interactions (Freund Publishing House, Israel, 1980), pp. 6–45.
H. Engell and F. Wever, Acta Metall. 5, 695(1957).
N. B. Pilling and R. E. Bedworth, J. Inst. Met. 29, 529(1923).
L. B. Pfeil, J. Iron Steel Inst. 119, 501(1929).
K. Heindlhofer and B. M. Larsen, Trans. Amer. Soc. Steel Treaters 21, 865(1933).
J. K. Stanley, J. von Hoene, and R. T. Huntoon, Trans. Amer. Soc. Met. 18, 426(1951).
B. W. Dunnington, F. H. Beck, and M. G. Fontana, Corrosion—NACE, 8, 2–13 (1952).
M. H. Davies, M. T. Simnad, and C. E. Birchenall, Trans. AIME 191, 889(1951).
M. H. Davies, M. T. Simnad, and C. E. Birchenall, Trans. AIME 193, 1250(1953).
J. Païdassi, Rev. Me´tall. 8, 569(1957)
J. Païdassi,Acta Metall. 6, 184(1958).
N. G. Schmahl, H. Baumann, and H. Schenck, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 29, 83(1958).
E. Brauns, A. Rahmel and H. Christmann, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 30, 553(1959).
R. F. Tylecote and T. E. Mitchell, J. Iron Steel Inst. 196, 445(1960).
R. J. Hussey, G. I. Sproule, D. Caplan, and M. J. Graham, Oxid. Met. 11, 65(1977).
A. G. Goursat and W. W. Smeltzer, Oxid. Met. 6, 101(1973).
N. Birk and G. H. Meier, Introduction to High Temperature Oxidation of Metals (Edward Arnold, London, 1983).
O. Kubaschewski and B. E. Hopkins, Oxidation of Metals and Alloys (Butterworths, London, 1962), pp. 108–114 and 230–240.
A. G. Goursat and W. W. Smeltzer, High-Temperature Materials Coatings and Surface Interactions (Freund Publishing House, Israel, 1980), pp. 49–91.
D. Caplan, J. Electrochem. Soc. 107, 359(1960).
N. G. Schmahl, H. Baumann, and H. Schenck, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 27, 707(1956).
N. G. Schmahl, H. Baumann, and H. Schenck, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 29, 41(1958).
L. Himmel, R. F. Mehl, and C. E. Birchenall, Trans. AIME 5, 827(1953).
F. Ajersch, 34th MWSP Conf. Proc. ISS-AIME 30 (1993), pp. 419–437.
W. W. Smeltzer and D. J. Young, Progr. Solid-State Chem. 10, 17(1975).
G. Tammann, Z. Anorg. Allgem. Chem. 111, 78(1920).
J. S. Sheasby, W. E. Boggs, and E. T. Turkdogan, Met. Sci. 18, 127(1984)
G. J. Kor, and E. T. Turkdogan, Metall. Trans. 2, 1571(1971).
C. Wagner, Atom Moûements (ASM, Cleveland, Ohio, 1951), pp. 153–173.
S. Mrowec, Defects and Diffusion in Solids: An Introduction (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1980), pp. 175–196.
C. Wagner, Progr. Solid-State Chem. 10, 3(1975).
J. Robertson and M. I. Manning, Mater. Sci. Technol. 6, 81(1990).
J. Païdassi, Acta Metall. 3, 447(1955).
D. S. O'Neill, Ph.D. Thesis, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2002.
K. M. Browne and M. Assefpour, Steel Times, Dec. 1993, pp. 524–525.
H. A. Wriedt, in Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd edn., Vol.2, T. B. Massalski, H. Okamoto, P. R. Subramanian, and L. Kacprzak, eds. (ASM Intern., Metals Park, OH, 1990), pp. 1739–1744.
H.J. Engell, Acta Metall. 6, 439(1958).
E. R. Jette and F. Foote, J. Chem. Phys. 1, 29(1933).
R. D. Shaw and R. Rolls, Corros. Sci. 14, 443(1974).
G. Garnaud and R. A. Rapp, Oxid. Met. 11, 193(1977).
F. Gesmundo and F. Viani, Corros. Sci. 18, 231(1978).
H. S. Hsu, Oxid. Met. 26, 315(1986).
S. Taniguchi and D. L. Carpenter, Corros. Sci. 19, 15(1979).
D. Caplan and M. Cohen, Corros. Sci. 6, 321(1966).
W. C. Leslie, The Physical Metallurgy of Steels (Hemisphere Publ., Washington, 1981), pp. 43–59.
D. L. Carpenter and A. C. Ray, Corros. Sci. 13, 493(1973).
D. Caplan, G. I. Sproule, and R. J. Hussey, Corros. Sci. 10, 9–17 (1970).
D. Caplan and M. Cohen, Corros. Sci. 3, 139(1963).
A. Atkinson, Rev. Modern Phys. 57, 437(1985).
W. E. Boggs and R. H. Kachik, J. Electrochem. Soc. 116, 424(1969).
A. Goswami, Indian J. Chem. 3, 385(1965).
H. Sakai, T. Tsuji, and K. Naito, J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 22, 158(1985).
M. J. Graham and R. J. Hussey, Oxid. Met. 15, 407(1981).
R. J. Hussey, D. Caplan, and M. J. Graham, Oxid. Met. 15, 421(1981).
K. Bhavani and V. K. Vaidyan, Oxid. Met. 15, 137(1981).
ASM Specialty Handbook: Carbon and Alloy Steels, J. R. Davis and Davis & Associates, eds. (ASM Intern., Materials Park, OH, 1996).
K. Sachs and C. W. Tuck, Werkst. Korros. 11, 945 (1970).
R. K. Singh Raman, B. Gleeson, and D. J. Young, Proc. 13th Inter. Corros. Conf., Australia, 1996, paper 297.
K. M. Browne, J. Dryden, and M. Assefpour, Recent Adûances in Heat Transfer and Micro-Structure Modeling for Metal Processing, MD-Vol. 67, R.M. Guo, and J. J. M. Too, eds. (ASME, Philadelphia, PA, 1995), pp. 187–197.
R. Y. Chen and W. Y. D. Yuen, unpublished results (1999).
H. Abuluwefa, R. I. L. Guthrie, and F. Ajersch, Oxid. Met. 46, 423(1996).
Z. Liu and W. Gao, High Temp. Mater. Process. 17, 231(1998).
A. J. Markworth, Metall. Trans. A 8A, 2014(1977).
P. Kofstad, Acta Chem. Scand. 12, 701(1958).
Z. Liu, W. Gao, and H. Gong, Scripta Mater. 38, 1057(1998).
B. Gleeson, S. M. M. Hadavi, and D. J. Young, Mater. High Temp. 17, 311–319 (2000).
D. W. Murphy, W. P. Wood, and W. E. Jominy, Trans. Amer. Soc. Met. 19, 193(1932).
C. Upthegrove, Scaling of Steel at Heat-Treating Temperatures, Engineering Research Bulletin, No. 25, Department of Engineering Research, University of Michigan (George Banta Publ., Menasha, WI, 1933).
R. Griffiths, J. Iron Steel Inst. 130, 377(1934).
C. A. Siebert and C. Upthegrove, Trans. Amer. Soc. Met. 23, 187–224 (1935).
C. A. Siebert, Trans. Amer. Soc. Met. 27, 752(1939).
H. D. Merchant, Oxid. Met. 2, 145(1970).
R. Rolls, Metallurgie 7, 53–60 (1967).
S. Modin and E. Tholander, Metal Treatment and Drop Forging, July 1961, pp. 261–270.
F. Matsuno, Trans. Iron Steel Inst. Jpn. 20, 413(1980).
W. K. Appleby and R. F. Tylecote, Corros. Sci. 10, 325(1970).
H. E. Evans, Intern. Mater. Rev. 40, 1(1995).
D. L. Douglass, Oxid. Met. 1, 127(1969).
J. H. Westbrook, Rev. Hautes Temp. Re´fract. 3, 47(1966).
F. Matsuno and S.I. Nishikida, Trans. Iron Steel Inst. Jpn. 26, B-251(1986).
J. D. Mackenzie and C. E. Birchenall, Corrosion-NACE 13, 783t(1957).
R. Y. Chen and W. Y. D. Yuen, Oxid. Met. 57, 53(2002).
H. E. Evans, Mater. Sci. Technol. 4, 1089(1988).
R. Y. Chen and W. Y. D. Yuen, unpublished results, 2000.
D. Caplan, G. I. Sproule, R. J. Hussey, and M. J. Graham, Oxid. Met. 12, 67(1978).
A. U. Malik and D. P. Whittle, Oxid. Met. 16, 339(1981).
D. Caplan, G. I. Sproule, R. J. Hussey, and M. J. Graham, Oxid. Met. 13, 255(1979).
ASM Handbook, Vol. 4: Heat Treating (ASM Intern., Materials Park, OH, 1991), p. 4.
C. W. Tuck, M. Odgers, and K. Sachs, Corros. Sci. 9, 271(1969).
N. Birks, Proc. Symp. Properties of High Temperature Alloys, Z. A. Foroulis and F. S. Pettit, eds. (Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ, 1976), pp. 215–260.
P. Kofstad, High Temperature Corrosion (Elsevier, London, 1988).
J. Baud, A. Ferrier, J. Manenc, and J. Bénard, Oxid. Met. 9, 69(1975).
J. Manenc and G. Vagnard, Corros. Sci. 9, 857(1969).
K. Sachs and J. R. Brown, J. Iron Steel Inst. 190, 169(1958).
G. Nectoux, Traitement Therm. 92, 41–50 (1975).
N. Birks and W. Jackson, J. Iron Steel Inst. 208, 81(1970).
N. Birks, Brit. Corros. J. 3, 56(1968).
P. Kofstad, Oxid. Met. 24, 265(1985).
A. Rahmel and J. Tobolski, Corros. Sci. 5, 333(1965).
H. Meurer and H. Schmalzried, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 42, 87(1971).
I. Wolf and H. J. Grabke, Solid State Commun. 54, 5(1985).
J. P. Plumensi, A. Kohn, G. Vagnard, and J. Manenc, Corros. Sci. 9, 309(1969).
W. E. Jominy and D. W. Murphy, Trans. Amer. Soc. Steel Treat. 18, 19(1930).
W. J. Tomlinson and S. Catchpole, Corros. Sci. 8, 845(1968).
W. J. Tomlinson and P. J. Lidgitt, Corros. Sci. 12, 807(1972).
L. P. Emel'yanenko, N. P. Zhuk, and A. E. Pronin, Zashchita Metall. 4, 500(1968).
K. R. Lawless, Rep. Progr. Phys, 37, 231(1974).
V. Raghavan, Phase Diagrams of Ternary Iron Alloys Part 5: Ternary Systems Containing Iron and Oxygen (The Indian Institute of Metals, Calcutta, 1989), pp. 5–8.
W. A. Fischer, A. Hoffmann, and R. Shimada, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 27, 521(1956).
W. A. Fischer, and A. Hoffmann, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 29, 107(1958).
T. Shiraiwa and F. Matsuno, Sumitomo Met. 19, 33–43 (1967).
B. Ilschner and E. Mlitzke, Acta Metall. 13, 855(1965).
G. Chaudron and H. Forestier, Acad. Sci. 178, 2173(1924).
E. A. Gulbransen and R. Ruka, Trans. AIME 188, 1500(1950).
A. Hoffmann, Technol. Mitt. Krupp Forsch.Ber. 24, 205(1966).
R. Collongues and G. Chaudron, Rev. Metall. 49, 699(1952).
G. Chaudron and R. Collongues, Rev. Metall. 48, 917(1951).
R. Collongues, R. Sifferlen, and G. Chaudron, Rev. Metall. 50, 727(1953).
J. Smuts and P. R. De Villiers, J. Iron Steel Inst. 204, 787(1966).
W. A. Fischer and A. Hoffmann, Arch. Ensenhüttenwes. 30, 15(1959).
J. Barlow, G. T. F. Jay, and K. Sachs, J. Iron Steel Inst. 203, 983(1965).
K. Sachs and G. T. F. Jay, J. Iron Steel Inst. 193, 34(1959).
L. Hachtel, Prakt. Metallogr. 32, 332(1995).
S. Garber, Metall. Soc. Conf. 6, 41(1960).
S. Garber, J. Iron Steel Inst. 192, 153(1959).
K. Sachs and G. T. F. Jay, J. Iron Steel Inst. 195, 180(1960).
J. W. Pickens, 25th MWSP Conf. Proc. ISS-AIME 21(1983), pp. 39–65.
J. Baud, A. Ferrier, and J. Manenc, Oxid. Met. 12, 331(1978).
R. Y. Chen and W. Y. D. Yuen, 43rd MWSP Conf. Proc. ISS-AIME 36 (2001), pp. 287–299.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chen, R., Yeun, W. Review of the High-Temperature Oxidation of Iron and Carbon Steels in Air or Oxygen. Oxidation of Metals 59, 433–468 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023685905159
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023685905159