Skip to main content
Log in

Review of the High-Temperature Oxidation of Iron and Carbon Steels in Air or Oxygen

  • Published:
Oxidation of Metals Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper reviews previous studies on iron and steel oxidation in oxygen or air at high temperatures. Oxidation of iron at temperatures above 700°C follows the parabolic law with the development of a three-layered hematite/magnetite/wüstite scale structure. However, at temperatures below 700°C, inconsistent results have been reported, and the scale structures are less regular, significantly affected by sample-preparation methods. Oxidation of carbon steel is generally slower than iron oxidation. For very short-time oxidation, the scale structures are similar to those formed on iron, but for longer-time oxidation, because of the less adherent nature, the scale structures developed are typically much more complex. Continuous-cooling conditions, after very short-time oxidation, favor the retention of an adherent scale, suggesting that the method proposed by Kofstad for deriving the rate constant using continuous cooling or heating-oxidation data is more appropriate for steel oxidation. Oxygen availability has certain effects on iron and steel oxidation. Under continuous cooling conditions, the final scale structure is found to be a function of the starting temperature for cooling and the cooling rate. Different scale structures develop across the width of a hot-rolled strip because of the varied oxygen availability and cooling rates at different locations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  1. H. Wiesinger, Metall. Plant Technol. 23, 44–46 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  2. J. R. Stubbles, AISE Steel Technol. pp. 44–50 (1999).

  3. I. Christmas, Metall. Plant Technol. 23, 32–34 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  4. P. F. Marcus and J. J. Innace, World Steel Dynamics, June 4, 2001.

  5. Iron & Steel in China and Australia (The East Asia Analytical Unit, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australia, 1995).

  6. W. L. Roberts, Flat Processing of Steel (Marcel Dekker, New York, 1988).

    Google Scholar 

  7. I. Gupta and D. Bhattacharya, in Metallurgy of Vacuum-Degassed Steel Products, R. Pradhan, ed. (The Minerals, Metals, and Materials Society, Warrensdale, PA, 1990), pp. 43–72.

    Google Scholar 

  8. V. B. Ginzburg, Steel-Rolling Technology: Theory and Practice (Marcel Dekker, New York, 1989).

    Google Scholar 

  9. M. M. Wolf, Iron Steelmaker 27, 63–64 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  10. M. M. Wolf, Iron Steelmaker 27, 114–115 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  11. R. Y. Chen and W. Y. D. Yuen, Oxid. Met. 53, 539(2000).

    Google Scholar 

  12. R.Y. Chen, and W. Y. D. Yuen, Oxid. Met. 56, 89(2001).

    Google Scholar 

  13. R. K. Singh Raman, unpublished results, BHP Steel—University of New South Wales Collaboration Project, 1995.

  14. K. Sachs and C. W. Tuck, Reheating for Hot Working (The Iron and Steel Institute, London, 1968), pp. 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  15. H. Abuluwefa, R. I. L. Guthrie, and F. Mucciardi, 34th MWSP. Conf. Proc., ISS-AIME, 30, (1993), pp. 453–469.

    Google Scholar 

  16. V. H. J. Lee, PhD Thesis, The University of New South Wales, Australia, 1997.

  17. V. H. J. Lee, D. J. Young, and B. Gleeson, Conf. Proc. Corrosion '99, Report No. 066 (1999), p. 8.

  18. H. T. Abuluwefa, R. I. L. Guthrie, and F. Ajersch, Metall. Mater. Trans. 28A, 1633(1997).

    Google Scholar 

  19. H. T. Abuluwefa, R. I. L. Guthrie, S. Yue, M. Isac, and J. Kozinski, 41st MWSP Conf. Proc. ISS 37, (1999), pp. 355–365.

    Google Scholar 

  20. J. Stringer, Metall. Rev. 11 113(1966).

    Google Scholar 

  21. H. J. Grabke, V. Leroy, and H. Viefhaus, ISIJ Intern. 35, 95(1995).

    Google Scholar 

  22. R. Y. Chen, and W. Y. D. Yuen, unpublished results (2001).

  23. J. Kucera, M. Hajduga, J. Glowacki, and P. Broz, Z. Metall. 90, 514(1999).

    Google Scholar 

  24. J. A. von Fraunhofer, and G. A. Pickup, High-Temperature Materials Coatings and Surface Interactions (Freund Publishing House, Israel, 1980), pp. 6–45.

    Google Scholar 

  25. H. Engell and F. Wever, Acta Metall. 5, 695(1957).

    Google Scholar 

  26. N. B. Pilling and R. E. Bedworth, J. Inst. Met. 29, 529(1923).

    Google Scholar 

  27. L. B. Pfeil, J. Iron Steel Inst. 119, 501(1929).

    Google Scholar 

  28. K. Heindlhofer and B. M. Larsen, Trans. Amer. Soc. Steel Treaters 21, 865(1933).

    Google Scholar 

  29. J. K. Stanley, J. von Hoene, and R. T. Huntoon, Trans. Amer. Soc. Met. 18, 426(1951).

    Google Scholar 

  30. B. W. Dunnington, F. H. Beck, and M. G. Fontana, Corrosion—NACE, 8, 2–13 (1952).

    Google Scholar 

  31. M. H. Davies, M. T. Simnad, and C. E. Birchenall, Trans. AIME 191, 889(1951).

    Google Scholar 

  32. M. H. Davies, M. T. Simnad, and C. E. Birchenall, Trans. AIME 193, 1250(1953).

    Google Scholar 

  33. J. Païdassi, Rev. Me´tall. 8, 569(1957)

    Google Scholar 

  34. J. Païdassi,Acta Metall. 6, 184(1958).

    Google Scholar 

  35. N. G. Schmahl, H. Baumann, and H. Schenck, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 29, 83(1958).

    Google Scholar 

  36. E. Brauns, A. Rahmel and H. Christmann, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 30, 553(1959).

    Google Scholar 

  37. R. F. Tylecote and T. E. Mitchell, J. Iron Steel Inst. 196, 445(1960).

    Google Scholar 

  38. R. J. Hussey, G. I. Sproule, D. Caplan, and M. J. Graham, Oxid. Met. 11, 65(1977).

    Google Scholar 

  39. A. G. Goursat and W. W. Smeltzer, Oxid. Met. 6, 101(1973).

    Google Scholar 

  40. N. Birk and G. H. Meier, Introduction to High Temperature Oxidation of Metals (Edward Arnold, London, 1983).

    Google Scholar 

  41. O. Kubaschewski and B. E. Hopkins, Oxidation of Metals and Alloys (Butterworths, London, 1962), pp. 108–114 and 230–240.

    Google Scholar 

  42. A. G. Goursat and W. W. Smeltzer, High-Temperature Materials Coatings and Surface Interactions (Freund Publishing House, Israel, 1980), pp. 49–91.

    Google Scholar 

  43. D. Caplan, J. Electrochem. Soc. 107, 359(1960).

    Google Scholar 

  44. N. G. Schmahl, H. Baumann, and H. Schenck, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 27, 707(1956).

    Google Scholar 

  45. N. G. Schmahl, H. Baumann, and H. Schenck, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 29, 41(1958).

    Google Scholar 

  46. L. Himmel, R. F. Mehl, and C. E. Birchenall, Trans. AIME 5, 827(1953).

    Google Scholar 

  47. F. Ajersch, 34th MWSP Conf. Proc. ISS-AIME 30 (1993), pp. 419–437.

    Google Scholar 

  48. W. W. Smeltzer and D. J. Young, Progr. Solid-State Chem. 10, 17(1975).

    Google Scholar 

  49. G. Tammann, Z. Anorg. Allgem. Chem. 111, 78(1920).

    Google Scholar 

  50. J. S. Sheasby, W. E. Boggs, and E. T. Turkdogan, Met. Sci. 18, 127(1984)

    Google Scholar 

  51. G. J. Kor, and E. T. Turkdogan, Metall. Trans. 2, 1571(1971).

    Google Scholar 

  52. C. Wagner, Atom Moûements (ASM, Cleveland, Ohio, 1951), pp. 153–173.

    Google Scholar 

  53. S. Mrowec, Defects and Diffusion in Solids: An Introduction (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1980), pp. 175–196.

    Google Scholar 

  54. C. Wagner, Progr. Solid-State Chem. 10, 3(1975).

    Google Scholar 

  55. J. Robertson and M. I. Manning, Mater. Sci. Technol. 6, 81(1990).

    Google Scholar 

  56. J. Païdassi, Acta Metall. 3, 447(1955).

    Google Scholar 

  57. D. S. O'Neill, Ph.D. Thesis, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2002.

  58. K. M. Browne and M. Assefpour, Steel Times, Dec. 1993, pp. 524–525.

  59. H. A. Wriedt, in Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd edn., Vol.2, T. B. Massalski, H. Okamoto, P. R. Subramanian, and L. Kacprzak, eds. (ASM Intern., Metals Park, OH, 1990), pp. 1739–1744.

    Google Scholar 

  60. H.J. Engell, Acta Metall. 6, 439(1958).

    Google Scholar 

  61. E. R. Jette and F. Foote, J. Chem. Phys. 1, 29(1933).

    Google Scholar 

  62. R. D. Shaw and R. Rolls, Corros. Sci. 14, 443(1974).

    Google Scholar 

  63. G. Garnaud and R. A. Rapp, Oxid. Met. 11, 193(1977).

    Google Scholar 

  64. F. Gesmundo and F. Viani, Corros. Sci. 18, 231(1978).

    Google Scholar 

  65. H. S. Hsu, Oxid. Met. 26, 315(1986).

    Google Scholar 

  66. S. Taniguchi and D. L. Carpenter, Corros. Sci. 19, 15(1979).

    Google Scholar 

  67. D. Caplan and M. Cohen, Corros. Sci. 6, 321(1966).

    Google Scholar 

  68. W. C. Leslie, The Physical Metallurgy of Steels (Hemisphere Publ., Washington, 1981), pp. 43–59.

    Google Scholar 

  69. D. L. Carpenter and A. C. Ray, Corros. Sci. 13, 493(1973).

    Google Scholar 

  70. D. Caplan, G. I. Sproule, and R. J. Hussey, Corros. Sci. 10, 9–17 (1970).

    Google Scholar 

  71. D. Caplan and M. Cohen, Corros. Sci. 3, 139(1963).

    Google Scholar 

  72. A. Atkinson, Rev. Modern Phys. 57, 437(1985).

    Google Scholar 

  73. W. E. Boggs and R. H. Kachik, J. Electrochem. Soc. 116, 424(1969).

    Google Scholar 

  74. A. Goswami, Indian J. Chem. 3, 385(1965).

    Google Scholar 

  75. H. Sakai, T. Tsuji, and K. Naito, J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 22, 158(1985).

    Google Scholar 

  76. M. J. Graham and R. J. Hussey, Oxid. Met. 15, 407(1981).

    Google Scholar 

  77. R. J. Hussey, D. Caplan, and M. J. Graham, Oxid. Met. 15, 421(1981).

    Google Scholar 

  78. K. Bhavani and V. K. Vaidyan, Oxid. Met. 15, 137(1981).

    Google Scholar 

  79. ASM Specialty Handbook: Carbon and Alloy Steels, J. R. Davis and Davis & Associates, eds. (ASM Intern., Materials Park, OH, 1996).

    Google Scholar 

  80. K. Sachs and C. W. Tuck, Werkst. Korros. 11, 945 (1970).

  81. R. K. Singh Raman, B. Gleeson, and D. J. Young, Proc. 13th Inter. Corros. Conf., Australia, 1996, paper 297.

  82. K. M. Browne, J. Dryden, and M. Assefpour, Recent Adûances in Heat Transfer and Micro-Structure Modeling for Metal Processing, MD-Vol. 67, R.M. Guo, and J. J. M. Too, eds. (ASME, Philadelphia, PA, 1995), pp. 187–197.

    Google Scholar 

  83. R. Y. Chen and W. Y. D. Yuen, unpublished results (1999).

  84. H. Abuluwefa, R. I. L. Guthrie, and F. Ajersch, Oxid. Met. 46, 423(1996).

    Google Scholar 

  85. Z. Liu and W. Gao, High Temp. Mater. Process. 17, 231(1998).

    Google Scholar 

  86. A. J. Markworth, Metall. Trans. A 8A, 2014(1977).

    Google Scholar 

  87. P. Kofstad, Acta Chem. Scand. 12, 701(1958).

    Google Scholar 

  88. Z. Liu, W. Gao, and H. Gong, Scripta Mater. 38, 1057(1998).

    Google Scholar 

  89. B. Gleeson, S. M. M. Hadavi, and D. J. Young, Mater. High Temp. 17, 311–319 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  90. D. W. Murphy, W. P. Wood, and W. E. Jominy, Trans. Amer. Soc. Met. 19, 193(1932).

    Google Scholar 

  91. C. Upthegrove, Scaling of Steel at Heat-Treating Temperatures, Engineering Research Bulletin, No. 25, Department of Engineering Research, University of Michigan (George Banta Publ., Menasha, WI, 1933).

    Google Scholar 

  92. R. Griffiths, J. Iron Steel Inst. 130, 377(1934).

    Google Scholar 

  93. C. A. Siebert and C. Upthegrove, Trans. Amer. Soc. Met. 23, 187–224 (1935).

    Google Scholar 

  94. C. A. Siebert, Trans. Amer. Soc. Met. 27, 752(1939).

    Google Scholar 

  95. H. D. Merchant, Oxid. Met. 2, 145(1970).

    Google Scholar 

  96. R. Rolls, Metallurgie 7, 53–60 (1967).

    Google Scholar 

  97. S. Modin and E. Tholander, Metal Treatment and Drop Forging, July 1961, pp. 261–270.

  98. F. Matsuno, Trans. Iron Steel Inst. Jpn. 20, 413(1980).

    Google Scholar 

  99. W. K. Appleby and R. F. Tylecote, Corros. Sci. 10, 325(1970).

    Google Scholar 

  100. H. E. Evans, Intern. Mater. Rev. 40, 1(1995).

    Google Scholar 

  101. D. L. Douglass, Oxid. Met. 1, 127(1969).

    Google Scholar 

  102. J. H. Westbrook, Rev. Hautes Temp. Re´fract. 3, 47(1966).

    Google Scholar 

  103. F. Matsuno and S.I. Nishikida, Trans. Iron Steel Inst. Jpn. 26, B-251(1986).

    Google Scholar 

  104. J. D. Mackenzie and C. E. Birchenall, Corrosion-NACE 13, 783t(1957).

    Google Scholar 

  105. R. Y. Chen and W. Y. D. Yuen, Oxid. Met. 57, 53(2002).

    Google Scholar 

  106. H. E. Evans, Mater. Sci. Technol. 4, 1089(1988).

    Google Scholar 

  107. R. Y. Chen and W. Y. D. Yuen, unpublished results, 2000.

  108. D. Caplan, G. I. Sproule, R. J. Hussey, and M. J. Graham, Oxid. Met. 12, 67(1978).

    Google Scholar 

  109. A. U. Malik and D. P. Whittle, Oxid. Met. 16, 339(1981).

    Google Scholar 

  110. D. Caplan, G. I. Sproule, R. J. Hussey, and M. J. Graham, Oxid. Met. 13, 255(1979).

    Google Scholar 

  111. ASM Handbook, Vol. 4: Heat Treating (ASM Intern., Materials Park, OH, 1991), p. 4.

  112. C. W. Tuck, M. Odgers, and K. Sachs, Corros. Sci. 9, 271(1969).

    Google Scholar 

  113. N. Birks, Proc. Symp. Properties of High Temperature Alloys, Z. A. Foroulis and F. S. Pettit, eds. (Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ, 1976), pp. 215–260.

    Google Scholar 

  114. P. Kofstad, High Temperature Corrosion (Elsevier, London, 1988).

    Google Scholar 

  115. J. Baud, A. Ferrier, J. Manenc, and J. Bénard, Oxid. Met. 9, 69(1975).

    Google Scholar 

  116. J. Manenc and G. Vagnard, Corros. Sci. 9, 857(1969).

    Google Scholar 

  117. K. Sachs and J. R. Brown, J. Iron Steel Inst. 190, 169(1958).

    Google Scholar 

  118. G. Nectoux, Traitement Therm. 92, 41–50 (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  119. N. Birks and W. Jackson, J. Iron Steel Inst. 208, 81(1970).

    Google Scholar 

  120. N. Birks, Brit. Corros. J. 3, 56(1968).

    Google Scholar 

  121. P. Kofstad, Oxid. Met. 24, 265(1985).

    Google Scholar 

  122. A. Rahmel and J. Tobolski, Corros. Sci. 5, 333(1965).

    Google Scholar 

  123. H. Meurer and H. Schmalzried, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 42, 87(1971).

    Google Scholar 

  124. I. Wolf and H. J. Grabke, Solid State Commun. 54, 5(1985).

    Google Scholar 

  125. J. P. Plumensi, A. Kohn, G. Vagnard, and J. Manenc, Corros. Sci. 9, 309(1969).

    Google Scholar 

  126. W. E. Jominy and D. W. Murphy, Trans. Amer. Soc. Steel Treat. 18, 19(1930).

    Google Scholar 

  127. W. J. Tomlinson and S. Catchpole, Corros. Sci. 8, 845(1968).

    Google Scholar 

  128. W. J. Tomlinson and P. J. Lidgitt, Corros. Sci. 12, 807(1972).

    Google Scholar 

  129. L. P. Emel'yanenko, N. P. Zhuk, and A. E. Pronin, Zashchita Metall. 4, 500(1968).

    Google Scholar 

  130. K. R. Lawless, Rep. Progr. Phys, 37, 231(1974).

    Google Scholar 

  131. V. Raghavan, Phase Diagrams of Ternary Iron Alloys Part 5: Ternary Systems Containing Iron and Oxygen (The Indian Institute of Metals, Calcutta, 1989), pp. 5–8.

    Google Scholar 

  132. W. A. Fischer, A. Hoffmann, and R. Shimada, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 27, 521(1956).

    Google Scholar 

  133. W. A. Fischer, and A. Hoffmann, Arch. Eisenhüttenwes. 29, 107(1958).

    Google Scholar 

  134. T. Shiraiwa and F. Matsuno, Sumitomo Met. 19, 33–43 (1967).

    Google Scholar 

  135. B. Ilschner and E. Mlitzke, Acta Metall. 13, 855(1965).

    Google Scholar 

  136. G. Chaudron and H. Forestier, Acad. Sci. 178, 2173(1924).

    Google Scholar 

  137. E. A. Gulbransen and R. Ruka, Trans. AIME 188, 1500(1950).

    Google Scholar 

  138. A. Hoffmann, Technol. Mitt. Krupp Forsch.Ber. 24, 205(1966).

    Google Scholar 

  139. R. Collongues and G. Chaudron, Rev. Metall. 49, 699(1952).

    Google Scholar 

  140. G. Chaudron and R. Collongues, Rev. Metall. 48, 917(1951).

    Google Scholar 

  141. R. Collongues, R. Sifferlen, and G. Chaudron, Rev. Metall. 50, 727(1953).

    Google Scholar 

  142. J. Smuts and P. R. De Villiers, J. Iron Steel Inst. 204, 787(1966).

    Google Scholar 

  143. W. A. Fischer and A. Hoffmann, Arch. Ensenhüttenwes. 30, 15(1959).

    Google Scholar 

  144. J. Barlow, G. T. F. Jay, and K. Sachs, J. Iron Steel Inst. 203, 983(1965).

    Google Scholar 

  145. K. Sachs and G. T. F. Jay, J. Iron Steel Inst. 193, 34(1959).

    Google Scholar 

  146. L. Hachtel, Prakt. Metallogr. 32, 332(1995).

    Google Scholar 

  147. S. Garber, Metall. Soc. Conf. 6, 41(1960).

    Google Scholar 

  148. S. Garber, J. Iron Steel Inst. 192, 153(1959).

    Google Scholar 

  149. K. Sachs and G. T. F. Jay, J. Iron Steel Inst. 195, 180(1960).

    Google Scholar 

  150. J. W. Pickens, 25th MWSP Conf. Proc. ISS-AIME 21(1983), pp. 39–65.

    Google Scholar 

  151. J. Baud, A. Ferrier, and J. Manenc, Oxid. Met. 12, 331(1978).

    Google Scholar 

  152. R. Y. Chen and W. Y. D. Yuen, 43rd MWSP Conf. Proc. ISS-AIME 36 (2001), pp. 287–299.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Chen, R., Yeun, W. Review of the High-Temperature Oxidation of Iron and Carbon Steels in Air or Oxygen. Oxidation of Metals 59, 433–468 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023685905159

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023685905159

Navigation