Abstract
Irrigated rice fields are temporary wetland agro-ecosystems, managed with a variable degree of intensity. A survey was carried out in Sri Lanka to document the overall biodiversity associated with this unique agro-ecosystem, using a combination of sampling techniques to document different groups of fauna and flora. The total number of biota recorded and identified from the rice field ecosystem during the entire study period consisted of 494 species of invertebrates belonging to 10 phyla and 103 species of vertebrates, while the flora included 89 species of macrophytes, 39 genera of microphytes and 3 species of macrofungi. Of the total species documented, 15 species of invertebrates and one weed species are new records to Sri Lanka. Arthropods were the dominant group of invertebrates (405 species), of which 55 species were rice pest insects, and 200 species were natural enemies of pest insects. The fauna and flora recorded from the rice field were observed to follow a uniform pattern of seasonal colonization and succession during successive rice cultivation cycles. The biodiversity of the irrigated rice agro-ecosystem interests both agroecologists and conservation biologists. Therefore, the integrated efforts of these two groups can result in the formulation of strategies based on biodiversity as an organizing principal in the sustainable management of the rice field agro-ecosystem.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abeywickrema B.A. 1979. The Genera of the Freshwater Algae of Sri Lanka. Part 1. Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka, 103 pp.
Abeywickrema B.A., Abeywickrema L., Arulgnanam P. and Jansen M.A.B. 1986. The Genera of the Freshwater Algae of Sri Lanka. Part 11. Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 45 pp.
Amerasinghe F.P. 1992. A guide to the identification of the anopheline mosquitoes of Sri Lanka. II. Larvae. Ceylon Journal Science (Biological Sciences) 22: 113.
Amerasinghe F.P. 1993. Rice field breeding mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in a new irrigation project in Sri Lanka. Mosquito-borne Diseases Bulletin 10: 1–7.
Amerasinghe F.P. 1995. Illustrated keys to the genera of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in Sri Lanka. Journal of the National Science Council of Sri Lanka 23: 183–211.
Amerasinghe F.P. 1996. Keys for the identification of the immature stages of Genus Culex (Diptera: Culicidae) in Sri Lanka. Journal of the National Science Council of Sri Lanka 24: 37–50.
Arida G.S. and Heong K.L. 1992. Blower-Vac: a new suction apparatus for sampling rice arthropods. IRRN 17: 30–31.
Arudpragasam K.D. and Costa H.H. 1962. Atyidae of Ceylon. - I. Crustaceana 4: 8–24.
Bambaradeniya C.N.B. 2000. Ecology and biodiversity in an irrigated rice field ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 525 pp.
Bambaradeniya C.N.B., Fonseka K.T. and Ambagahawatte C.L. 1998. A preliminary study of fauna and flora of a rice field in Kandy, Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science (Biological Sciences) 25: 1–22.
Barrion A.T. and Litsinger J.A. 1994. Taxonomy of rice insect pests and their arthropod parasites and predators. In: Heinrichs E.A. (ed) Biology and Management of Rice Insects. Wiley Eastern Ltd., India and IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 13–362.
Barrion A.T. and Litsinger J.A. 1995. Riceland Spiders of South and South-East Asia. CAB International, Wallingford, UK and IRRI, Manila, Philippines, 700 pp.
Brinkhurst R.O. and Jamieson B.G.M. 1971. Aquatic oligochaetes of the world. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, UK.
Chandrasena J.P.N.R. 1987. Rice field weeds in the Colombo and Gampaha Districts of Sri Lanka. Journal of the National Science Council of Sri Lanka 15(2): 249–265.
Chandrasena J.P.N.R. 1988. Floristic composition and abundance of rice-field weeds in four low-country wet zone districts of Sri Lanka. Tropical Pest Management 34: 278–287.
Chandrasena J.P.N.R. 1989. A survey of the rice-field weeds in Ratnapura and Kurunegala districts of Sri Lanka. Journal of the National Science Council of Sri Lanka 17: 187–211.
Chandrasena J.P.N.R. 1990. An illustrated manual of rice field weeds in Sri Lanka. Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 184 pp.
Costa H.H. 1967. A systematic study of freshwater Oligochaeta from Ceylon. Ceylon Journal of Science (Biological Sciences) 7(1&2): 37–51.
D'Abreira B. 1998. The Butterflies of Ceylon. Wildlife Heritage Trust, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 221 pp.
Dale D. 1994. Insect pests of the rice plant - their biology and ecology. In: Heinrichs E.A. (ed) Biology and Management of Rice Insects. Wiley Eastern Ltd., India and IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 363–487.
de Fonseka T. 1998. A Guide to the Dragonflies of Sri Lanka. Published by the author. 195 pp., 40 plates.
De Silva A. 1990. Colour Guide to the Snakes of Sri Lanka. R & A Publishing Ltd., Avon, UK, 130 pp.
Deraniyagala P.E.P. 1953. A Coloured Atlas of Some Vertebrates from Ceylon. Vol. 2. Tetrapod Reptilia, 101 pp.
Dutta S.K. and Manamendra-Arachchi K. 1996. The Amphibian Fauna of Sri Lanka. The Wild Life Heritage Trust, Sri Lanka, 230 pp.
Eaton D.A., Clesceri L.S., Greenberg A.E. and Franson M.A.H. 1995. StandardMethods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water. 19th edn. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, 108 pp.
Fernando C.H. 1956. The fish fauna of paddy fields and small irrigation ditches in the western lowlands of Ceylon; and a bibliography of references to fish in paddy fields. Ceylon Journal of Science (C) 7: 223–227.
Fernando C.H. 1960. The Ceylonese freshwater crabs (Potamonidae). Ceylon Journal of Science (Biological Sciences) 3: 191–202.
Fernando C.H. 1977. Investigations on the aquatic fauna of tropical rice fields with special reference to southeast Asia. Geo-Eco-Trop 3: 169–188.
Fernando C.H. 1980a. The freshwater invertebrate fauna of Sri Lanka. Spolia Zeylanica 35: 15–39.
Fernando C.H. 1980b. The freshwater zooplankton of Sri Lanka, with a discussion of tropical freshwater zooplankton composition. Internationale Revue Der Gesamten Hydrobiologie 65: 85–125.
Fernando C.H. 1993. Rice field ecology and fish culture - an overview. Hydrobiologia 259: 91–113.
Fernando C.H. 1995. Rice fields are aquatic, semi-aquatic, terrestrial and agricultural: a complex and questionable limnology. In: Timotius K.H. and Goltenboth F. (eds) Tropical Limnology 1: 121–148.
Fernando C.H. 1996. Ecology of rice fields and its bearing on fisheries and fish culture. In: de Silva S.S. (ed) Perspectives in Asian Fisheries. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines, pp. 217–237.
Fernando C.H. and Weerawardhena S.R. 2002. Sri Lanka Freshwater Fauna and Fisheries. Volumes, Ontario, Canada, 634 pp.
Fernando C.H., Furtado J.I. and Lim R.P. 1979. Aquatic fauna of the world's rice fields. Wallaceana Supplement (Kuala Lumpur) 2: 1–105.
Fortuner R. and Merny G. 1979. Nematodes of rice. Revue Nematology 2: 79–102.
Goodey T. 1963. In: Goodey J.B. (ed) Soil and Freshwater Nematodes. 2nd edn. Methuen, London, 544 pp.
Grant I.F. and Seegers R. 1985. Tubificid role in soil mineralization and recovery of algal nitrogen by lowland rice. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 17: 559–563.
Grist D.H. 1965. Rice (4th edn). Longman, Green & Co. Ltd., London, 548 pp.
Gunatilleke G.A. and Somasiri S. 1995. Rice growing ecosystems. In: Amarasiri S.L. Nagarajah S. and Perera B.M.K. (eds) Proceedings of the Rice Congress, 1990. Department of Agriculture, Colombo, Sri Lanka, pp. 1–16.
Halwart M. 1994. Fish as biocontrol agents in rice. The potential of Common carp Cyprinus carpio (L.) and Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (L.). Verlag Josaf Margraf, Weikersheim, Germany, 169 pp.
Halwart M. 1998. Trends in rice-fish farming. FAO Agriculture Newsletter 18: 3–11.
Heckman C.W. 1974. Seasonal succession of species in a rice paddy in Vientiane, Laos. Internationale Revue Der Gesamten Hydrobiologie 59: 489–507.
Heckman C.W. 1979. Rice field ecology in North East Thailand. Monographs Biology 34: 228.
Heinrichs E.A. 1994. Rice. In: Heinrichs E.A. (ed) Biology and Management of Rice Insects. Wiley Eastern Ltd., India and IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 1–12.
Henry G.M. 1978. A Guide to the Birds of Ceylon (2nd edn). de Silva & Sons K.V.G., Kandy, Sri Lanka, 457 pp.
Heong K.L., Aquino G.B. and Barrion A.T. 1991. Arthropod community structures of rice ecosystems in the Philippines. Bulletin of Entomological Research 81: 407–416.
Huston M.A. 1994. Biological Diversity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 681 pp.
Kiritani K. 2000. Integrated biodiversity management in paddy fields: shift of paradigm from IPM toward IBM. Integrated Pest Management Review 5: 175–183.
Kurihara Y. 1989. Ecology of some rice fields in Japan as exemplified by some benthic fauna, with notes on management. Internationale Revue Der Gesamten Hydrobiologie 74: 507–548.
Lawler S.P. 2001. Rice fields as temporary wetlands: a review. Israel Journal of Zoology 7: 513–528.
Lim R.P. 1992. Effects of pesticides on the aquatic invertebrate community in rice fields. In: Yap S.K. and Lee S.W. (eds) In Harmony with Nature. Proceedings of the International Conference on Tropical Biodiversity, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 336–352.
MacArthur R.H. and Wilson E.O. 1967. The Theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
McNeely J.A. 1995. How traditional agro-ecosystems can contribute to conserving biodiversity. In: Halladay P. and Gilmour D.A. (eds) Conserving Biodiversity Outside Protected Areas. The Role of Traditional Agro-ecosystems. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, pp. 20–40.
Meijen V.A. 1940. Fish Culture in Rice Fields. Food Industry Publishers, Moscow, 96 pp. (Russian). Engl. Trans., Fernando C.H. (ed) Published by SUNY, Geneseo, New York, 1993, 111 pp.
Moody K. 1989. Weeds reported in rice in South and Southeast Asia. IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines.
Moorman F.R. and Van Breeman N. 1978. Rice, Soil, Water, Land. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines, 185 pp.
Naggs F. 1996. A Coloured Guide to the Land and Freshwater Molluscs of Sri Lanka. The Natural History Museum, London, 36 pp.
Neale J.W. 1977. Ostracods from the rice fields of Sri Lanka (Ceylon). In: Loffler H. and Danielopo D.C. (eds) Proceedings of the 6th International Ostracod Symposium, Saalfeldeen, Austria, 1976, pp. 271–283.
Nishida T. and Torii T. 1970. A Handbook of Field Methods for Research on Rice Stem Borers and Their Natural Enemies. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, UK.
Odum E.P. 1997. Ecology: A Bridge Between Science and Society. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts, 330 pp.
Ooi P.A.C. and Shepard B.M. 1994. Predators and parasitoids of rice insects. In: Heinrichs E.A. (ed) Biology and Management of Rice Insects. Wiley Eastern Ltd., India and IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 613–656.
Ooi P.A.C. and Waage J.K. 1994. Biological control in rice: applications and research needs. In: Teng P.S., Heong K.L. and Moody K. (eds) Rice Pest Science and Management, IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 209–218.
Otake A., Somasunderam P.H. and Abeykoon M.B. 1976. Studies on populations of Sogatella furcifera Horvath and Nilaparvata lugens (Stal) (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) and their parasites in Sri Lanka. Applied Entomology and Zoology 11: 284–294.
Panabokke C.R. 1996. Soils and agro-ecological environments of Sri Lanka. Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 220 pp.
Pathak M.D. and Khan Z.R. 1994. Insect Pests of Rice. IRRI, Manila, Philippines, 89 pp.
Pennak R.W. 1978. Freshwater Invertebrates of the United States. 2nd edn. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 803 pp.
Perera 1980. Natural resources, settlements and land use. In: Fernando C.H. (ed.) Ecology and Biogeography in Sri Lanka. Junk Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands, pp. 453–493.
Perfect T.J. and Cook A.G. 1994. Rice planthopper dynamics: a comparison between temperate and tropical tropical regions. In: Denno R.F. and Perfect T.J. (eds) Planthoppers, Their Ecology and Management. Chapman & Hall, London, pp. 282–301.
Pethiyagoda R. 1991. Freshwater Fishes of Sri Lanka. The Wild life Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 362 pp.
Phillips W.W.A. 1980. Manual of the Mammals of Sri Lanka. 2nd revised edn. Parts 1, 2 & 3. Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka,389 pp.
Pimental D., Stachow U., Takacs D., Brubaker H.W., Dumas A.R., Meaney J.J. et al. 1992. Conserving biological diversity in agricultural/forestry systems. BioScience 42: 354–362.
Rajendram G.F. and Devarajah F.R. 1990. Survey of some insect pests and their predators in three districts of Sri Lanka. Journal of the National Science Council of Sri Lanka 18: 79–92.
Roger P.A. and Kulasooriya S.A. 1980. Blue-Green Algae and Rice. International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines, 112 pp.
Roger P.A. and Kurihara Y. 1988. Floodwater biology of tropical wetland rice fields. In: Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Paddy Soil Fertility, Chiang Mai, Thailand, pp. 275–300.
Roger P.A. and Kurihara Y. 1991. The floodwater biology of tropical wetland rice fields. In: Soil Management for Sustainable Rice Production in the Tropics. International Board for Soil Research and Management (IBSRAM). Monograph 2, pp. 211–233.
Roger P.A., Heong K.L. and Teng P.S. 1991. Biodiversity and sustainability of wetland rice production: role and potential of microorganisms and invertebrates. In: Hawksworth D.L. (ed) The Biodiversity of Microorganisms and Invertebrates: Its Role in Sustainable Agriculture. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 117–136.
Schoenly K., Cohen J.E., Heong K.L., Litsinger J.A., Aquino G.B., Barrion A.T. et al. 1996. Food web dynamics of irrigated rice fields at five elevations in Luzon, Philippines. Bulletin of Entomological Research 86: 451–460.
Seneviratne G., Kulasooriya S.A., Gunatilleke C.V.S. and Rosswall T. 1992. Ecology of rice fallow vegetation under lowland traditional farming in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. Tropical Ecology 31: 17–28.
Shepard B.M., Barrion A.T. and Litsinger J.A. 1987. Friends of the Rice Farmer: Helpful Insects, Spiders and Pathogens. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines, 136 pp.
Soerjani M., Kostermans A.J.G.H. and Tjitrosoepomo G. 1987. Weeds of Rice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka, Jakarta, Indonesia.
Stinner D.H., Stinner B.R. and Martsolf E. 1997. Biodiversity as an organising principle in agroecosystem management: case studies of holistic resource management practitioners in the USA. Agricultural Ecosystems and Environment 62: 199–213.
Tikader B.K. 1987. Handbook - Indian Spiders. Zoological Survey of India, 251 pp.
Vandermeer J. and Perfecto I. 1997. The agroecosystem: a need for the conservation biologist's lens. Conservation Biology 11: 591–592.
Velmurugu V. 1980. A review of weed control in rice. In: Proceedings of the Rice Symposium, Department of Agriculture, Colombo, Sri Lanka, pp. 109–132.
Walker J.T. and Wilson J.D. 1960. The separation of nematodes from soil by a modified Baermann funnel technique. Plant Disease Reporter 44: 94–97.
Watanabe I. and Roger P.A. 1985. Ecology of flooded rice fields. In: Wetland Soils: Characterization, Classification and Utilization. International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines, pp. 230–242.
Way M.J. and Heong K.L. 1994. The role of biodiversity in the dynamics and management of insect pests of tropical irrigated rice - a review. Bulletin of Entomological Research 84: 567–587.
Weerakoon A.C.J. 1957. Some animals of the paddy field. Loris VII: 335–343.
Weerakoon W.L. and Gunewardena S.D.I.E. 1983. Rice field weed flora of Sri Lanka. Tropical Agriculturist 139: 1–14.
Weerakoon A.C.J. and Samarasinghe E.L. 1958. Mesofauna of the soil of a paddy field in Ceylon - a preliminary survey. Ceylon Journal of Science (Biological Sciences) 1(2): 155–170.
Weeraratne S. and Fernando C.H. 1984. Some aspects of the ecology of rice fields. In. Fernando C.H. (ed) Ecology and Biogeography in Sri Lanka. Junk Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands, Chapter 5, pp. 133–144.
Western D. and Pearl M.C. (eds.) 1989. Conservation for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford University Press, New York.
Williams D.D. 1987. The Ecology of Temporary Waters. Croom Helm Ltd, London, 205 pp.
Wilson M.R. and Claridge M.F. 1991. Handbook for the Identification of Leafhoppers and Planthoppers of Rice. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 142 pp.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bambaradeniya, C., Edirisinghe, J., De Silva, D. et al. Biodiversity associated with an irrigated rice agro-ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Biodiversity and Conservation 13, 1715–1753 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BIOC.0000029331.92656.de
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BIOC.0000029331.92656.de