Abstract
The goal of this study was to investigate how adult English speakers, who are good readers, but who differ in spelling ability, remember word-specific spelling information. In the first experiment, participants learned the spellings of words they had previously misspelled, while “thinking out loud”. The main strategies observed in order of popularity were: letter rehearsal, overpronunciation, comparison of the remembered and the correct spelling, morphological analysis and visualisation. All strategies produced good learning success for the better spellers, but weaker spellers had less success with overpronunciation, comparison and morphological analysis. In a second experiment, when participants were shown their misspelling and the correct spelling, and instructed to use either overpronunciation or comparison to learn the correct spelling, learning success was independent of spelling ability. However, sequential verbal memory ability was associated with greater success in using overpronunciation, and sequential visual memory ability with greater success in using comparison. The findings provide new insight into the types of strategies that advanced learners use spontaneously to memorise arbitrary letter sequences, as well as revealing how effective the strategies are.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aaron, P.G., Wilczynski, S. & Keetay, V. (1998). The anatomy of word-specic memory. In C. Hulme & R.M. Joshi (Eds.), Reading and spelling:Development and disorders (pp.405–419).Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bradley, L. & Bryant, P.E. (1983). Categorising sounds and learning to read: A causal connection. Nature, 301, 419–421.
Byrne, B. & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1989). Phonemic awareness and letter knowledge in the child's acquisition of the alphabetic principle. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 313–321.
Burden, V. (1992). Why are some ‘normal’ readers such poor spellers? In C.M. Sterling & C. Robson (Eds.), Psychology, spelling and education (pp.200–214). Clevedon,UK: Multilingual Matters.
Caravolas, M., Hulme, C. & Snowling, M.J. (2001). The foundations of spelling ability: Evidence from a 3-year longitudinal study. Journal of Memory and Language, 45, 751–774.
Carlisle, J.F. (1988). Knowledge of derivational morphology and spelling ability in fourth, sixth, and eighth graders. Applied Psycholinguistics, 9, 247–266.
Drake, D.A. & Ehri, L.C. (1984). Spelling acquisition: Effects of pronouncing words on memory for their spellings. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 297–320.
Dreyer, L.G., Luke, S.D., & Melican, E.K. (1995). Children's acquisition and retention of word spellings. In V.W. Berninger (Ed.),The varieties of orthographic knowledge II: Relationships to phonology, reading, and writing (pp.291–320). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Ehri, L.C. (1980). The development of orthographic images.In U. Frith (Ed.),Cognitive processes in spelling (pp.311–338).London: Academic Press.
Ehri, L.C. (1986). Sources of difficulty in learning to spell and read.Advances in Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics,7,121–195.
Ehri, L.C. (1997).Learning to read and learning to spell are one and the same, almost.In C.A. Perfetti, L. Rieben & M. Fayol (Eds.),Learning to spell: Research,theory,and practice across languages (pp.237–269).Mahwah,NJ: Erlbaum.
Elbro, C. & Arnbak, E. (1996).The role of morpheme recognition and morphological awareness in dyslexia.Annals of Dyslexia,46,209–240.
Fischer, F.W., Shankweiler, S. & Liberman, I.Y. (1985).Spelling pro ciency and sensitivity to word structure.Journal of Memory and Language,24,423–441.
Forster, K.I. & Forster, J.C. (2003).DMDX:A Windows display program with milli-second accuracy.Behavior Research Methods,Instruments,and Computers,35, 116–124.
Frith, U. (1980).Unexpected spelling problems.In U. Frith (Ed.),Cognitive processes in spelling (pp.495–515).London: Academic Press.
Frith, U. (1985).Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexia.In K.Patterson, J. Marshall & M. Coltheart (Eds.),Surface dyslexia:Neuropsychological and cognitive studies of phonological reading (pp.301–330).London: Erlbaum.
Funnell, E. (1992).On recognising misspelled words.In C.M. Sterling & C. Robson (Eds.),Psychology,spelling and education (pp.87–99).Clevedon,UK: Multilingual Matters.
Goulandris, N.K. & Snowling, M. (1991).Visual memory de cits:a plausible cause of developmental dyslexia?Evidence from a single case study.Cognitive Neuropsy-chology,8,127–154.
Holmes, V.M. & Carruthers, J. (1998).The relation between reading and spelling in skilled adult readers.Journal of Memory and Language,39,264–289.
Holmes, V.M. & Castles, A.E. (2001).Unexpectedly poor spelling in university students.Scientific Studies in Reading,5,319–350.
Holmes, V.M. & Ng, E.C. (1993).Word-speci c knowledge,word-recognition strate-gies,and spelling ability.Journal of Memory and Language,32,230–257.
KuČera, H. & Francis, W.N. (1967).Computational analysis of present-day American English.Providence,RI: Brown University Press.
Leong, C.K. (2000).Rapid processing of base and derived forms of words and grades 4,5 and 6 children 's spelling.Reading and Writing:An Interdisciplinary Journal, 12,277–302.
Logan, J.W., Olson, M.W., & Lindsey, T.P. (1989).Lessons from champion spellers. Journal of the Education of the Gifted,13,89–96.
Moseley, D. (1994).From theory to practice:Errors and trials.In G.D.A. Brown & N.C. Ellis (Eds.),Handbook of spelling:Theory,process and intervention (pp.459–480).Chichester: Wiley.
Ormrod, J.E. & Jenkins, L. (1989).Study strategies for learning spelling:correlations with achievement and developmental changes.Perceptual and Motor Skills,68, 643–650.
Perfetti, C.A. (1991).Representations and awareness in the acquisition of reading competence.In L. Rieben & C.A. Perfetti (Eds.),Learning to read:Basic research and its implications (pp.33–44).Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum.
Perfetti, C.A. (1997).The psycholinguistics of reading and spelling.In C.A. Perfetti, L. Rieben & M. Fayol (Eds.),Learning to spell:Research,theory,and practice across languages (pp.21–38).Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Rittle-Johnson, B. & Siegler, R.S. (1999).Learning to spell:Variability,choice,and change in children 's strategy use.Child Development,70,332–348.
Romani, C., Ward, J. & Olson, A. (1999).Developmental surface dysgraphia:What is the underlying cognitive impairment?Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,52A,97–128.
Rubin, H. (1988).Morphological knowledge and early writing ability.Language and Speech,31,337–355.
Rubin, H. (1991).Morphological knowledge and writing ability.In R.M. Joshi (Ed.), Written language disorders (pp.43–69).The Hague: Kluwer.
Share, D. (1995).Phonological recoding and self-teaching:Sine qua non of reading acquisition.Cognition,55,151–218.
Sloboda, J.A. (1980).Visual imagery and individual differences in spelling.In U. Frith (Ed.),Cognitive processes in spelling (pp.231–248).London: Academic Press.
Snowling, M.J. (1980).The development of grapheme-phoneme correspondences in normal and dyslexic readers.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,29,294–305.
Snowling, M.J. & Hulme, C. (1994).The development of phonological skills.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,Series B-Biological Sciences,346,21–27.
Stanovich, K.E. & West, R.F. (1989).Exposure to print and orthographic processing. Reading Research Quarterly,24,402–433.
Steffler, D.J. (2001).Implicit cognition and spelling development.Developmental Review,21,168–204.
Steffler, D.J., Varnhagen, C.K., Friesen, C.K. & Treiman, R. (1998).There 's more to children 's spelling than the errors they make:Strategic and automatic processes for one-syllable words.Journal of Educational Psychology,90,492–505.
Thomson, M. (1991).The teaching of spelling using techniques of simultaneous oral spelling and visual inspection.In M.J. Snowling & M. Thomson (Eds.),Dyslexia: Integrating theory and practice.London: Whurr Publishers.
Varnhagen, C.K. (1995).Children 's spelling strategies.In V.W. Berninger (Ed.),The varieties of orthographic knowledge II:Relationships to phonology,reading,and writing (pp.251–290).Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Vellutino, F.R. (1979).Dyslexia:Theory and research.Cambridge,MA: MIT Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Holmes, V.M., Malone, N. Adult spelling strategies. Reading and Writing 17, 537–566 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:READ.0000044368.17444.7d
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:READ.0000044368.17444.7d