Abstract
Neurogenesis continues into adulthood in two distinct regions, the subventricular zone of the forebrain and the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus. Transplantation experiments have suggested that the two neurogenic regions have a special microenvironment to support the proliferation and differentiation of stem or progenitor cells. As the candidates of the microenvironment, three elements have so far been proposed: (i) astrocytes; (ii) polysialyl neural cell adhesion molecule (PSA-NCAM)-expressing immature neurons; and (iii) blood vessels. In the early developmental process of neurogenesis, newly born cells make clusters within the neurogenic regions and the clusters are found to interact structurally with astrocytes, polysialic acidexpressing immature cells, endothelium and extravascular basal laminae of blood vessels. Furthermore, recent reports have shown that astrocytes support the proliferation and differentiation of stem cells in vitro. These results suggest that these microenvironmental elements contribute to the cell proliferation and differentiation of stem or progenitor cells. However, it remains to be determined how the microenvironmental elements support adult neurogenesis functionally and coordinate with each other.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Altman J (1969) Autoradiographic and histological studies of postnatal neurogenesis. IV. Cell proliferation and migration in the anterior forebrain, with special reference to persisting neurogenesis in the olfactory bulb. J Comp Neurol 137, 433–57.
Altman J, Das GD (1965) Autoradiographic and histological evidence of postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis in rats. J Comp Neurol 124, 319–35.
Alvarez-Buylla A, Buskirk RD, Nottebohm F (1987) Monoclonal antibody reveals radial glia in adult avian brain. J Comp Neurol 246, 159–70.
Alvarez-Buylla A, Garcia-Verdugo JM (2002) Neurogenesis in adult subventricular zone. J Neurosci 22, 629–34.
Alvarez-Buylla A, Seri B, Doetsch F (2002) Identification of neural stem cells in the adult vertebrate brain. Brain Res Bull 57, 751–8.
Bayer SA (1983) 3H-Thymidine-radiographic studies of neurogenesis in the rat olfactory bulb. Exp Brain Res 50, 329–40.
Bayer SA, Yackel JW, Puri PS (1982) Neurons in the rat dentate gyrus granular layer substantially increase during juvenile and adult life. Science 216, 890–2.
Biro S, Yu ZX, Fu YM, Smale G et al. (1994) Expression and subcellular distribution of basic fibroblast growth factor are regulated during migration of endothelial cells. Circ Res 74, 485–94.
Bittman K, Owens DF, Kriegstein AR, LoTurco JJ (1997) Cell coupling and uncoupling in the ventricular zone of developing neocortex. J Neurosci 17, 7037–44.
Cameron HA, Woolley CS, McEwen BS, Gould E (1993) Differentiation of newly born neurons and glia in the dentate gyrus of the adult rat. Neuroscience 56, 337–44.
Campos LS, Duarte AJ, Branco T, Henrique D (2001) mDll1 and mDI13 expression in the developing mouse brain: Role in the establishment of the early cortex. J Neurosci Res 64, 590–8.
Doetsch F, Alvarez-Buylla A (1996) Network of tangential pathways for neuronal migration in adult mammalian brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93, 14 895–900.
Doetsch F, Caille I, Lim DA, Garcia-Verdugo JM, Alvarez-Buylla A (1999) Subventricular zone astrocytes are neural stem cells in the adult mammalian brain. Cell 97, 703–16.
Doetsch F, Garcia-Verdugo JM, Alvarez-Buylla A (1997) Cellular composition and three-dimensional organization of the sub-ventricular germinal zone in the adult mammalian brain. J Neurosci 17, 5046–61.
Du Y, Dreyfus CF (2002) Oligodendrocytes as providers of growth factors. J Neurosci Res 68, 647–54.
Eckenhoff MF, Rakic P (1984) Radial organization of the hippoc-ampal dentate gyrus: A Golgi, ultrastructural, and immunocytochemical analysis in the developing Rhesus monkey. J Comp Neurol 223, 1–21.
Eriksson PS, Perfilieva E, Bjork-Eriksson T et al. (1998) Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nat Med 4, 1313–17.
Fricker RA, Carpenter MK, Winkler C, Greco C, Gates MA, Bjorklund A (1999) Sitespecific migration and neuronal differentiation of human neural progenitor cells after transplantation in the adult rat brain. J Neurosci 19, 5990–6005.
Fuxe K, Chadi G, Tinner B, Agnati LF, Pettersson R, David G (1994) On the regional distribution of heparan sulfate proteoglycan immunoreactivity in the rat brain. Brain Res 636, 131–8.
Gaiano N, Nye JS, Fishell G (2000) Radial glial identity is promoted by Notch1 signaling in the murine forebrain. Neuron 26, 395–404.
Gould E, Gross CG (2002) Neurogenesis in adult mammals: Some progress and problems. J Neurosci 22, 619–23.
Gould E, McEwen BS, Tanapat P, Galea LA, Fuchs E (1997) Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the adult tree shrew is regulated by psychosocial stress and NMDA receptor activation. J Neurosci 17, 2492–8.
Gregg CT, Chojnacki AK, Weiss S (2002) Radial glial cells as neuronal precursors: The next generation? J Neurosci Res 69, 708–13.
Gross CG (2000) Neurogenesis in the adult brain: Death of a dogma. Nat Rev Neurosci 1, 67–73.
Grothe C, Meisinger C, Claus P (2001) In vivo expression and localization of the fibroblast growth factor system in the intact and lesioned rat peripheral nerve and spinal ganglia. J Comp Neurol 434, 342–57.
Hartmann D, Sievers J, Pehlemann FW, Berry M (1992) Destruction of meningeal cells over the medial cerebral hernisphere of newborn hamsters prevents the formation of the infrapyramidal blade of the dentate gyrus. J Comp Neurol 320, 33–61.
Horner PJ, Power AE, Kempermann G et al. (2000) Proliferation and differentiation of progenitor cells throughout the intact adult rat spinal cord. J Neurosci 20, 2218–28.
Irvin DK, Zurcher SD, Nguyen T, Weininaster G, Komblum HI (2001) Expression patterns of Notch1, Notch2, and Notch3 suggest multiple functional roles for the Notch-DSL signaling system during brain development. J Comp Neurol 436, 167–81.
Jin K, Zhu Y, Sun Y, Mao XO, Xie L, Greenberg DA (2002) Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) stimulates neurogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99, 11 946–50.
Kalman M, Hajos F (1989) Distribution of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunoreactive astrocytes in the rat brain. Exp Brain Res 78, 147–63.
Kaplan MS, Hinds JW (1977) Neurogenesis in the adult rat: Electron microscopic analysis of light radioautographs. Science 197, 1092–4.
Kaplan MS, McNelly NA, Hinds JW (1985) Population dynamics of adult-formed granule neurons of the rat olfactory bulb. J Comp Neurol 239, 117–25.
Kehl U, Fairbanks CA, Laughlin TM, Wilcox GL (1997) Neurogenesis in postnatal rat spinal cord: A study in primary culture. Science 276, 586–9.
Kiss JZ, Troncoso E, Djebbara Z, Vutskits L, Muller D (2001) The role of neural cell adhesion molecules in plasticity and repair. Brain Res Brain Res Review 36, 175–84.
Kondo T, Raff M (2000) Oligodendrocyte precursor cells reprogrammed to become multipotential CNS stem cells. Science 289, 1754–7.
Kosaka T, Hama K (1986) Three-dimensional structure of astrocytes in the rat dentate gyrus. J Comp Neurol 249, 242–60.
Kuhn HG, Dickinson-Anson H, Gage FH (1996) Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the adult rat: Age-related decrease of neuronal progenitor proliferation. J Neurosci 16, 2027–33.
Leavitt BR, Hernit-Grant CS, Macklis JD (1999) Mature astrocytes transform into transitional radial glia within adult mouse neocortex that supports directed migration of transplanted immature neurons. Exp Neurol 157, 43–57.
Lim DA, Alvarez-Buylla A (1999) Interaction between astrocytes and adult subventricular zone precursors stimulates neurogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96, 7526–31.
Lim DA, Tramontin AD, Trevejo JM, Herrera DG, Garcia-Verdugo JM, Alvarez-Buylla A (2000) Noggin antagonizes BMP signaling to create a niche for adult neurogenesis. Neuron 28, 713–26.
Lois C, Alvarez-Buylla A (1993) Proliferating subventricular zone cells in the adult mammalian forebrain can differentiate into neurons and glia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90, 2074–7.
Lois C, Alvarez-Buylla A (1994) Long-distance neuronal migration in the adult mammalian brain. Science 264, 1145–8.
Louissaint Jr A, Rao S, Leventhal C, Goldman SA (2002) Coordinated interaction of neurogenesis and angiogcnesis in the adult songbird brain. Neuron 34, 945–60.
Luskin MB (1993) Restricted proliferation and migration of postnatally generated neurons derived from the forebrain subventricular zone. Neuron 11, 173–89.
Mercier F, Kisato JT, Hatton GI (2001) Connexin 26 and basic fibroblast growth factor arc expressed primarily in the subpial and subependymal layers in adult brain parenchyma: Roles in stem cell proliferation and morphological plasticity? J Comp Neurol 431, 88–104.
Mercier FJTK, Hatton GI (2002) Anatomy of the brain neurogenic zones revisited: Fractones and the fibroblast/macrophage network. J Comp Neurol 451, 170–88.
Miyata T, Kawaguchi A, Okano H, Ogawa M (2001) Asymmetric inheritance of radial glial fibers by cortical neurons. Neuron 31, 727–41.
Mugnaini E (1986) Cell junctions of astrocytes, ependyma, and related cells in the mammalian central nervous system, with emphasis on the hypothesis of a generalized functional synsytium of supporting cells. In: Astrocytes: Development, Morphology, and Regional Specialization of Astrocytes (Fedoroff, SVA, ed.). Academic Press, New York, 329–71.
Noctor SC, Flint AC, Weissman TA, Darnmerman RS, Kriegstein AR (2001) Neurons derived from radial glial cells establish radial units in neocortex. Nature 409, 714–20.
Ono K, Tomasiewicz H, Magnuson T, Rutishauser U (1994) NCAM mutation inhibits tangential neuronal migration and is phenocopied by enzymatic removal of polysialic acid. Neuron 13, 595–609.
Palmer TD, Markakis EA, Willhoite AR, Safar F, Gage FH (1999) Fibroblast growth factor-2 activates a latent neurogenic program in neural stem cells from diverse regions of the adult CNS. J Neurosci 19, 8487–97.
Palmer TD, Willhoite AR, Gage FH (2000) Vascular niche for adult hippocampal neurogenesis. J Comp Neurol 425, 479–94.
Parent JM, Yu TW, Leibowitz RT, Geschwind DR, Sloviter RS, Lowenstein DR (1997) Dentate granule cell neurogenesis is increased by seizures and contributes to aberrant network reorganization in the adult rat hippocampus. J Neurosci 17, 3727–38.
Raisman G (1985) Specialized neuroglial arrangement may explain the capacity of vomeronasal axons to reinnervate central neurons. Neuroscience 14, 237–54.
Rakic P (2002) Adult neurogenesis in mammals: An identity crisis. J Neurosci 22, 614–18.
Ramon y, Cajal S (1995) Histology of the Nervous System of Man and Vertebrates. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Rickmann M, Amaral DG, Cowan WM (1987) Organization of radial glial cells during the development of the rat dentate gyrus. J Comp Neurol 264, 449–79.
Rutishauser U, Landmesser L (1996) Polysialic acid in the vertebrate nervous system: A promoter of plasticity in cell-cell interactions. Trends Neurosci 19, 422–7.
Schmidt-Kastner R, Szymas J (1990) Immunohistochemistry of glial fibrillary acidic protein, vimentin and S-100 protein for study of astrocytes in hippocampus of rat. J Chem Neuroanat 3, 179–92.
Seki T (2002a) Expression patterns of immature neuronal markers (PSA-NCAM, CRMP-4 and NeuroD) in the hippocampus of young adult and aged rodents. J Neurosci Res 70, 327–34.
Seki T (2002b) Hippocampal adult neurogenesis occurs in a microenvironment provided by PSA-NCAM-expressing immature neurons. J Neurosci Res 69, 772–83.
Seki T, Arai Y (1993a) Distribution and possible roles of the highly polysialylated neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAMH) in the developing and adult central nervous system. Neurosci Res 17, 265–90.
Seki T, Arai Y (1993b) Highly polysialylated neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM-H) is expressed by newly generated granule cells in the dentate gyrus of the adult rat. J Neurosci 13, 2351–8.
Seki T, Arai Y (1995) Age-related production of new granule cells in the adult dentate gyrus. Neuroreport 6, 2479–82.
Seki T, Arai Y (1999) Temporal and spacial relationships between PSA-NCAM expressing, newly generated granule cells, and radial glia-like cells in the adult dentate gyrus. J Comp Neurol 410, 503–13.
Seri B, Garcia-Verdugo JM, McEwen BS, Alvarez-Buylla A (2001) Astrocytes give rise to new neurons in the adult mammalian hippocampus. J Neurosci 21, 7153–60.
Shihabuddin LS, Homer PJ, Ray J, Gage FH (2000) Adult spinal cord stem cells generate neurons after transplantation in the adult dentate gyrus. J Neurosci 20, 8727–35.
Shihabuddin LS, Ray J, Gage FH (1997) FGF-2 is sufficient to isolate progenitors found in the adult mammalian spinal cord. Exp Neurol 148, 577–86.
Sievers J, Hartmann D, Peblemarm FW, Berry M (1992) Development of astroglial cells in the proliferative matrices, the granule cell layer, and the hippocampal fissure of the hamster dentate gyrus. J Comp Neurol 320, 1–32.
Song H, Stevens CF, Gage FH (2002) Astroglia induce neurogenesis from adult neural stem cells. Nature 417, 39–44.
Soriano E, Alvarado-Mallart RM, Dumesnil N, Del Rio JA, Sotelo C (1997) Cajal Retzius cells regulate the radial glia phenotype in the adult and developing cerebellum and alter granule cell migration. Neuron 18, 563–77.
Storms SD, Rutishauser U (1998) A role for polysialic acid in neural cell adhesion molecule heterophilic binding to proteoglycans. J Biol Chem 273, 27 124–9.
Suhonen JO, Peterson DA, Ray J, Gage FH (1996) Differentiation of adult hippocampus-derived progenitors into olfactory neurons in vivo. Nature 383, 624–7.
Tamamaki N, Nakamura K, Okamoto K, Kaneko T (2001) Radial glia is a progenitor of neocortical neurons in the developing cerebral cortex. Neurosci Res 41, 51–60.
Valverde F, Santacana M, Heredia M (1992) Formation of an olfactory glomerulus: Morphological aspects of development and organization. Neuroscience 49, 255–75.
Vutskits L, Djebbara-Hannas Z, Zhang H et al. (2001) PSA-NCAM modulates BDNF-dependent survival and differentiation of cortical neurons. Eur J Neurosci 13, 1391–402.
Wichterle H, Garcia-Verdugo JM, Alvarez-Buylla A (1997) Direct evidence for homotypic, glia-independent neuronal migration. Neuron 18, 779–91.
Yayon A, Klagsbrun M, Esko JD, Leder P, Ornitz DM (1991) Cell surface, heparin-like molecules are required for binding of basic fibroblast growth factor to its high affinity receptor. Cell 64, 841–8.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Seki, T. Microenvironmental elements supporting adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Anato Sci Int 78, 69–78 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0022-7722.2003.00043.x
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0022-7722.2003.00043.x