Antimicrobial Drug-Induced Thrombocytopenia: A Review of the Literature

 

 Buy Article Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

The incidence of drug-induced thrombocytopenia (DIT) is not well-defined, but is estimated to occur at a minimum of 10 cases per million per year. This review will focus on the potential DIT associated with specific antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and antiparasitic agents. Case reports, cohort studies, and clinical trials were identified using PubMed search terms for each antimicrobial along with the Boolean combiner AND to match with the following outcomes: thrombocytopenia and bleed. Thrombocytopenia was defined as a platelet count of < 100 × 10⁹/L or a decrease in platelet count of at least 50% from baseline. A majority of the data supporting antimicrobial-induced thrombocytopenia consist of case reports and small studies. However, clinicians should be vigilant in monitoring patient platelet counts, as an immune-mediated mechanism is frequently responsible for this hematologic adverse effect and is therefore unpredictable.

• References

• 1 Shehab N, Patel PR, Srinivasan A, Budnitz DS. Emergency department visits for antibiotic-associated adverse events. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47 (6) 735-743
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 2 van den Bemt PM, Meyboom RH, Egberts AC. Drug-induced immune thrombocytopenia. Drug Saf 2004; 27 (Suppl. 15) 1243-1252
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 3 Prizola JL, Smythe MA, Dager WE. Drug-induced thrombocytopenia in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2010; 38 (6) S145-S154
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 4 Veneri D, Franchini M, Randon F, Nichele I, Pizzolo G, Ambrosetti A. Thrombocytopenias: a clinical point of view. Blood Transfus 2009; 7 (2) 75-85
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 5 Patel N, Vandewall H, Tristani L , et al. A comparative evaluation of adverse platelet outcomes among Veterans' Affairs patients receiving linezolid or vancomycin. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67 (3) 725-735
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 6 Aster RH, Bougie DW. Drug-induced immune thrombocytopenia. N Engl J Med 2007; 357 (6) 580-587
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 7 George JN, Raskob GE, Shah SR , et al. Drug-induced thrombocytopenia: a systematic review of published case reports. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129 (11) 886-890
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 8 George JN, Aster RH. Drug-induced thrombocytopenia: pathogenesis, evaluation, and management. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program) 2009; 153-158
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 9 Kenney B, Stack G. Drug-induced thrombocytopenia. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2009; 133 (2) 309-314
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 10 Christie DJ, Mullen PC, Aster RH. Fab-mediated binding of drug-dependent antibodies to platelets in quinidine- and quinine-induced thrombocytopenia. J Clin Invest 1985; 75 (1) 310-314
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 11 Smith ME, Reid DM, Jones CE, Jordan JV, Kautz CA, Shulman NR. Binding of quinine- and quinidine-dependent drug antibodies to platelets is mediated by the Fab domain of the immunoglobulin G and is not Fc dependent. J Clin Invest 1987; 79 (3) 912-917
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 12 Bougie DW, Wilker PR, Aster RH. Patients with quinine-induced immune thrombocytopenia have both “drug-dependent” and “drug-specific” antibodies. Blood 2006; 108 (3) 922-927
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 13 Warkentin TE. Drug-induced immune-mediated thrombocytopenia—from purpura to thrombosis. N Engl J Med 2007; 356 (9) 891-893
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 14 Visentin GP, Liu CY. Drug-induced thrombocytopenia. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2007; 21 (4) 685-696 , vi
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 15 Bactrim DS [package insert]. Philadelphia, PA: AR Scientific, Inc.; September 2009
• 16 Aster RH, Curtis BR, McFarland JG, Bougie DW. Drug-induced immune thrombocytopenia: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management. J Thromb Haemost 2009; 7 (6) 911-918
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 17 Brown RB, Klar J, Lemeshow S, Teres D, Pastides H, Sands M. Enhanced bleeding with cefoxitin or moxalactam. Statistical analysis within a defined population of 1493 patients. Arch Intern Med 1986; 146 (11) 2159-2164
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 18 Aitken P, Zaidi SM. Cefuroxime-induced thrombocytopenia?. Postgrad Med J 1996; 72 (854) 757-758
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 19 Reichardt P, Handrick W, Linke A, Schille R, Kiess W. Leukocytopenia, thrombocytopenia and fever related to piperacillin/tazobactam treatment—a retrospective analysis in 38 children with cystic fibrosis. Infection 1999; 27 (6) 355-356
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 20 Ruiz-Irastorza G, Barreiro G, Aguirre C. Reversible bone marrow depression by high-dose piperacillin/tazobactam. Br J Haematol 1996; 95 (4) 611-612
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 21 Salamon DJ, Nusbacher J, Stroupe T, Wilson JH, Hanrahan JB. Red cell and platelet-bound IgG penicillin antibodies in a patient with thrombocytopenia. Transfusion 1984; 24 (5) 395-398
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 22 Olivera E, Lakhani P, Watanakunakorn C. Isolated severe thrombocytopenia and bleeding caused by piperacillin. Scand J Infect Dis 1992; 24 (6) 815-817
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 23 Pérez-Vázquez A, Pastor JM, Riancho JA. Immune thrombocytopenia caused by piperacillin/tazobactam. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27 (3) 650-651
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 24 Yan MT, Chu HY, Chau T, Lin SH. Profound thrombocytopenia associated with piperacillin in a hemodialysis patient. Clin Nephrol 2009; 72 (3) 240-243
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 25 Grossjohan B, Eichler P, Greinacher A, Santoso S, Kroll H. Ceftriaxone causes drug-induced immune thrombocytopenia and hemolytic anemia: characterization of targets on platelets and red blood cells. Transfusion 2004; 44 (7) 1033-1040
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 26 Fass RJ, Copelan EA, Brandt JT, Moeschberger ML, Ashton JJ. Platelet-mediated bleeding caused by broad-spectrum penicillins. J Infect Dis 1987; 155 (6) 1242-1248
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 27 Bang N, Kammer R. Hematologic complications associated with B-lactam antibiotics. Rev Infect Dis 1983; 5 (Suppl. 02) S380-S393
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 28 Sakata H, Kakehashi H, Fujita K, Yoshioka H. Effects of aztreonam on fecal flora and on vitamin K metabolism. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990; 34 (6) 1045-1047
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 29 Agnelli G, Del Favero A, Parise P , et al. Cephalosporin-induced hypoprothrombinemia: is the N-methylthiotetrazole side chain the culprit?. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1986; 29 (6) 1108-1109
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 30 Zyvox [package insert]. Kalamazoo, MI: Pharmacia & Upjohn Company; 2009
  Google Scholar
• 31 Attassi K, Hershberger E, Alam R, Zervos MJ. Thrombocytopenia associated with linezolid therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34 (5) 695-698
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 32 Nasraway SA, Shorr AF, Kuter DJ, O'Grady N, Le VH, Cammarata SK. Linezolid does not increase the risk of thrombocytopenia in patients with nosocomial pneumonia: comparative analysis of linezolid and vancomycin use. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37 (12) 1609-1616
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 33 Minson Q, Gentry CA. Analysis of linezolid-associated hematologic toxicities in a large veterans affairs medical center. Pharmacotherapy 2010; 30 (9) 895-903
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 34 Hogan HL, Hachem RY, Neuhauser M, Raad II, Coyle E. Clinical experience of linezolid in bone marrow transplantation patients. J Pharm Pract 2010; 23 (4) 352-357
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 35 Wu VC, Wang YT, Wang CY , et al. High frequency of linezolid-associated thrombocytopenia and anemia among patients with end-stage renal disease. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42 (1) 66-72
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 36 Matsumoto K, Takeshita A, Ikawa K , et al. Higher linezolid exposure and higher frequency of thrombocytopenia in patients with renal dysfunction. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2010; 36 (2) 179-181
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 37 Spellberg B, Yoo T, Bayer AS. Reversal of linezolid-associated cytopenias, but not peripheral neuropathy, by administration of vitamin B6. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004; 54 (4) 832-835
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 38 Plachouras D, Giannitsioti E, Athanassia S , et al. No effect of pyridoxine on the incidence of myelosuppression during prolonged linezolid treatment. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43 (9) e89-e91
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 39 Bernstein WB, Trotta RF, Rector JT, Tjaden JA, Barile AJ. Mechanisms for linezolid-induced anemia and thrombocytopenia. Ann Pharmacother 2003; 37 (4) 517-520
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 40 Yu Z, Lennon VA. Mechanism of intravenous immune globulin therapy in antibody-mediated autoimmune diseases. N Engl J Med 1999; 340 (3) 227-228
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 41 Pascoalinho D, Vilas MJ, Coelho L, Moreira P. Linezolid-related immune-mediated severe thrombocytopenia. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2011; 37 (1) 88-89
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 42 Rao N, Ziran BH, Wagener MM, Santa ER, Yu VL. Similar hematologic effects of long-term linezolid and vancomycin therapy in a prospective observational study of patients with orthopedic infections. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38 (8) 1058-1064
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 43 Shah RA, Musthaq A, Khardori N. Vancomycin-induced thrombocytopenia in a 60-year-old man: a case report. J Med Case Reports 2009; 3: 7290
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 44 Govindarajan R, Baxter D, Wilson C, Zent C. Vancomycin-induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Hematol 1999; 62 (2) 122-123
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 45 Lee JH, Kim DS, Lee HS, Choi SI, Cho YG. A case of vancomycin-induced thrombocytopenia. Korean J Hematol 2009; 44 (4) 294-297
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 46 Kenney B, Tormey CA. Acute vancomycin-dependent immune thrombocytopenia as an anamnestic response. Platelets 2008; 19 (5) 379-383
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 47 O'Donnell E, Shepherd C, Neff A. Immune thrombocytopenia from vancomycin in orthopedic cement. Am J Hematol 2007; 82 (12) 1122
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 48 Von Drygalski A, Curtis BR, Bougie DW , et al. Vancomycin-induced immune thrombocytopenia. N Engl J Med 2007; 356 (9) 904-910
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 49 Myers MW, Jick H. Hospitalization for serious blood and skin disorders following use of co-trimoxazole. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 43 (4) 446-448
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 50 Yamreudeewong W, Fosnocht BJ, Weixelman JM. Severe thrombocytopenia possibly associated with TMP/SMX therapy. Ann Pharmacother 2002; 36 (1) 78-82
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 51 Jick H. Adverse reactions to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in hospitalized patients. Rev Infect Dis 1982; 4 (2) 426-428
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 52 Kaufman DW, Kelly JP, Johannes CB , et al. Acute thrombocytopenic purpura in relation to the use of drugs. Blood 1993; 82 (9) 2714-2718
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 53 Pedersen-Bjergaard U, Andersen M, Hansen PB. Drug-specific characteristics of thrombocytopenia caused by non-cytotoxic drugs. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1998; 54 (9-10) 701-706
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 54 Hagen MD, White RD. Thrombocytopenia secondary to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. South Med J 1983; 76 (4) 503
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 55 Curtis BR, McFarland JG, Wu GG, Visentin GP, Aster RH. Antibodies in sulfonamide-induced immune thrombocytopenia recognize calcium-dependent epitopes on the glycoprotein IIb/IIIa complex. Blood 1994; 84 (1) 176-183
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 56 Kiefel V, Santoso S, Schmidt S, Salama A, Mueller-Eckhardt C. Metabolite-specific (IgG) and drug-specific antibodies (IgG, IgM) in two cases of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole-induced immune thrombocytopenia. Transfusion 1987; 27 (3) 262-265
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 57 Herrington A, Mahmood A, Berger R. Treatment options in sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim-induced thrombocytopenic purpura. South Med J 1994; 87 (9) 948-950
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 58 Martínez E, Collazos J, Mayo J. Hypersensitivity reactions to rifampin. Pathogenetic mechanisms, clinical manifestations, management strategies, and review of the anaphylactic-like reactions. Medicine (Baltimore) 1999; 78 (6) 361-369
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 59 Covic A, Goldsmith DJ, Segall L , et al. Rifampicin-induced acute renal failure: a series of 60 patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1998; 13 (4) 924-929
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 60 Blajchman MA, Lowry RC, Pettit JE, Stradling P. Rifampicin-induced immune thrombocytopenia. BMJ 1970; 3 (5713) 24-26
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 61 Kakaiya RM, Dehertogh D, Walker FJ, Cummings E, Uzdejczyk M. Rifampin-induced immune thrombocytopenia. A case report. Vox Sang 1989; 57 (3) 185-187
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 62 Mori M, Izawa K, Fujikawa T , et al. A case of acute and severe thrombocytopenia due to readministration of rifampicin. J Infect Chemother 2011; 17 (2) 288-290
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 63 Martínez E, Muñiz E, Domingo P. Evidence implicating rifampin-independent antiplatelet antibodies in the pathogenesis of rifampin-induced immune thrombocytopenia. Clin Infect Dis 1994; 19 (2) 351-353
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 64 Burgess JK, Lopez JA, Gaudry LE, Chong BH. Rifampicin-dependent antibodies bind a similar or identical epitope to glycoprotein IX-specific quinine-dependent antibodies. Blood 2000; 95 (6) 1988-1992
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 65 Pereira J, Hidalgo P, Ocqueteau M , et al. Glycoprotein Ib/IX complex is the target in rifampicin-induced immune thrombocytopenia. Br J Haematol 2000; 110 (4) 907-910
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 66 Mehta YS, Jijina FF, Badakere SS, Pathare AV, Mohanty D. Rifampicin-induced immune thrombocytopenia. Tuber Lung Dis 1996; 77 (6) 558-562
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 67 Hadfield JW. Rifampicin-induced thrombocytopenia. Postgrad Med J 1980; 56 (651) 59-60
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 68 Pujet JC, Homberg JC, Decroix G. Sensitivity to rifampicin: incidence, mechanism, and prevention. BMJ 1974; 2 (5916) 415-418
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 69 Levaquin [package insert]. Austin, TX: Hospira, Inc.; August 2009
  Google Scholar
• 70 Cipro [package insert]. Wayne, NJ: Bayer Healthcare Pharmaceuticals; November 2011
  Google Scholar
• 71 Avelox [package insert]. Wayne, NJ: Bayer Healthcare Pharmaceuticals; October 2011
  Google Scholar
• 72 Salloum R, Liu CY, Weise AM. Possible case of levofloxacin-induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2011; 68 (1) 43-46
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 73 Cheah CY, De Keulenaer B, Leahy MF. Fluoroquinolone-induced immune thrombocytopenia: a report and review. Intern Med J 2009; 39 (9) 619-623
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 74 Chan CS, Tuazon CU, Lessin LS. Amphotericin-B-induced thrombocytopenia. Ann Intern Med 1982; 96 (3) 332-333
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 75 Shigemi A, Matsumoto K, Ikawa K , et al. Safety analysis of liposomal amphotericin B in adult patients: anaemia, thrombocytopenia, nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity and hypokalaemia. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2011; 38 (5) 417-420
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 76 Sundar S, Chakravarty J, Agarwal D, Rai M, Murray HW. Single-dose liposomal amphotericin B for visceral leishmaniasis in India. N Engl J Med 2010; 362 (6) 504-512
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 77 Kulpa J, Zaroulis CG, Good RA, Kutti J. Altered platelet function and circulation induced by amphotericin B in leukemic patients after platelet transfusion. Transfusion 1981; 21 (1) 74-76
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 78 Hussein MA, Fletcher R, Long TJ, Zuccaro K, Bolwell BJ, Hoeltge A. Transfusing platelets 2h after the completion of amphotericin-B decreases its detrimental effect on transfused platelet recovery and survival. Transfus Med 1998; 8 (1) 43-47
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 79 Slichter SJ, Davis K, Enright H , et al. Factors affecting posttransfusion platelet increments, platelet refractoriness, and platelet transfusion intervals in thrombocytopenic patients. Blood 2005; 105 (10) 4106-4114
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 80 Sloand EM, Kumar P, Yu M, Klein HG. Effect of amphotericin B and fluconazole on platelet membrane glycoproteins. Transfusion 1994; 34 (5) 415-420
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 81 Kauffman CA, Frame PT. Bone marrow toxicity associated with 5-fluorocytosine therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1977; 11 (2) 244-247
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 82 Meyer R, Axelrod JL. Fatal aplastic anemia resulting from flucytosine. JAMA 1974; 228 (12) 1573
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 83 Stamm AM, Diasio RB, Dismukes WE , et al. Toxicity of amphotericin B plus flucytosine in 194 patients with cryptococcal meningitis. Am J Med 1987; 83 (2) 236-242
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 84 Shindo K, Mizuno T, Matsumoto Y , et al. Granulocytopenia and thrombocytopenia associated with combination therapy of amphotericin B and low-dose flucytosine in a patient with cryptococcal meningitis. DICP 1989; 23 (9) 672-674
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 85 Diasio RB, Lakings DE, Bennett JE. Evidence for conversion of 5-fluorocytosine to 5-fluorouracil in humans: possible factor in 5-fluorocytosine clinical toxicity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1978; 14 (6) 903-908
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 86 Harris BE, Manning BW, Federle TW, Diasio RB. Conversion of 5-fluorocytosine to 5-fluorouracil by human intestinal microflora. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1986; 29 (1) 44-48
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 87 Mercurio MG, Elewski BE. Thrombocytopenia caused by fluconazole therapy. J Am Acad Dermatol 1995; 32 (3) 525-526
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 88 Agarwal A, Sakhuja V, Chugh KS. Fluconazole-induced thrombocytopenia. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113 (11) 899
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 89 Sugar AM, Saunders C. Oral fluconazole as suppressive therapy of disseminated cryptococcosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Med 1988; 85 (4) 481-489
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 90 Larsen RA, Leal MA, Chan LS. Fluconazole compared with amphotericin B plus flucytosine for cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS. A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113 (3) 183-187
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 91 Costello C. Haematological abnormalities in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease. J Clin Pathol 1988; 41 (7) 711-715
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 92 Cancidas [package insert]. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck & Co., Inc; 2010
  Google Scholar
• 93 Lynch J, Wong-Beringer A. Caspofungin: a potential cause of reversible severe thrombocytopenia. Pharmacotherapy 2004; 24 (10) 1408-1411
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 94 Eraxis [package insert]. New York, NY: Pfizer; 2010
  Google Scholar
• 95 Mycamine [package insert]. Deerfield, IL: Astellas Pharma US, Inc; 2011
  Google Scholar
• 96 Nazzal M, Safi F, Arma F, Nazzal M, Muzaffar M, Assaly R. Micafungin-induced thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura: a case report and review of the literature. Am J Ther 2011; 18 (6) e258-e260
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 97 Paya C, Humar A, Dominguez E , et al. Efficacy and safety of valganciclovir vs. oral ganciclovir for prevention of cytomegalovirus disease in solid organ transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 2004; 4 (4) 611-620
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 98 Danziger-Isakov L, Mark Baillie G. Hematologic complications of anti-CMV therapy in solid organ transplant recipients. Clin Transplant 2009; 23 (3) 295-304
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 99 Razonable RR. Antiviral drugs for viruses other than human immunodeficiency virus. Mayo Clin Proc 2011; 86 (10) 1009-1026
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 100 Raisch DW, Straight TM, Holodniy M. Thrombocytopenia from combination treatment with oseltamivir and probenecid: case report, MedWatch data summary, and review of the literature. Pharmacotherapy 2009; 29 (8) 988-992
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 101 Brinker AD, Beitz J. Spontaneous reports of thrombocytopenia in association with quinine: clinical attributes and timing related to regulatory action. Am J Hematol 2002; 70 (4) 313-317
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 102 New risk management plan and patient medication guide for Qualaquin (quinine sulfate) [drug safety communication]. Rockville, MD: U.S. Food and Drug Administration; July 28, 2010 http://www.fda.gov.ezproxy.galter.northwestern.edu/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm218202.htm . Accessed February 15, 2012
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 103 Perdomo J, Yan F, Ahmadi Z, Jiang XM, Stocker R, Chong BH. Quinine-induced thrombocytopenia: drug-dependent GPIb/IX antibodies inhibit megakaryocyte and proplatelet production in vitro. Blood 2011; 117 (22) 5975-5986
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 104 Freiman JP. Fatal quinine-induced thrombocytopenia. Ann Intern Med 1990; 112 (4) 308-309
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 105 Kunicki TJ, Russell N, Nurden AT, Aster RH, Caen JP. Further studies of the human platelet receptor for quinine- and quinine-dependent antibodies. J Immunol 1981; 126 (2) 398-402
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 106 Yildiz BO, Haznedaroğlu IC, Cöplü L. Albendazole-induced amegakaryocytic thrombocytopenic purpura. Ann Pharmacother 1998; 32 (7-8) 842
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 107 Fernández FJ, Rodríguez-Vidigal FF, Ledesma V, Cabanillas Y, Vagace JM. Aplastic anemia during treatment with albendazole. Am J Hematol 1996; 53 (1) 53-54
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 108 Albenza [package insert]. Mississauga, Ontario, Canada: GlaxoSmithKline; 2011
  Google Scholar
• 109 Kempin SJ, Jackson CW, Edwards CC. In vitro inhibition of platelet function and coagulation by pentamidine isethionate. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1977; 12 (4) 451-454
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 110 Nebupent [package insert]. Schaumburg, IL: APP Pharmaceuticals, LLC; December 2010
  Google Scholar
• 111 Sattler FR, Cowan R, Nielsen DM, Ruskin J. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole compared with pentamidine for treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. A prospective, noncrossover study. Ann Intern Med 1988; 109 (4) 280-287
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 112 Milder JE, Walzer PD, Powell Jr RD. Treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and pentamidine: efficacy and toxicity. South Med J 1979; 72 (12) 1626-1628
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 113 Christie DJ, Sauro SC, Cavanaugh AL, Kaplan ME. Severe thrombocytopenia in an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patient associated with pentamidine-dependent antibodies specific for glycoprotein IIb/IIIa. Blood 1993; 82 (10) 3075-3080
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 114 Reese JA, Li X, Hauben M , et al. Identifying drugs that cause acute thrombocytopenia: an analysis using 3 distinct methods. Blood 2010; 116 (12) 2127-2133
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 115 Rabinovitz M, Pitlik SD, Halevy J, Rosenfeld JB. Ethambutol-induced thrombocytopenia. Chest 1982; 81 (6) 765-766
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 116 Kant S, Verma SK, Gupta V, Anand SC, Prasad R. Pyrazinamide induced thrombocytopenia. Indian J Pharmacol 2010; 42 (2) 108-109
  PubMedGoogle Scholar