Abstract
If there is abundant reason to believe that classical education engendered in Britain’s elites a sense of the importance and relevance of classical antiquity to contemporary life, there remains the matter of tracing how such general sentiments contributed to specific conceptions of empire during the long 19th century. The necessary first step is to sift classical discourse for themes and trends with an imperial dimension. It is easy enough to find period representations of antiquity containing ‘imperial’ elements, but somewhat more difficult to determine with certainty which ones best exemplify the common, or dominant, understanding of antiquity. It is even more difficult to determine exactly how particular understandings, and the representations they spawned, came to be. Did they spring full formed from the hoary brows of ancient sources? Were they a palimpsest of contemporary concerns and values over ancient texts? Or did they emerge from a process that slid to and fro on the spectrum between these poles?
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F. W. Newman (1874) ‘The moral character of Roman conquest’, Fraser’s Magazine, vol. 89, O.S., p. 588. Pliny, Nat. His. 3.39.
P.W.M. Freeman (1996) ‘British Imperialism and the Roman Empire’, in J. Webster and N.J. Cooper (eds) Roman Imperialism: Post-Colonial Perspectives (Leicester) pp. 22, 26. C. Edwards (1999) ‘Introduction’ in Roman Presences: Receptions of Rome in European Culture 1789–1945 (Cambridge) p. 3. A. Markley (2004) Stateliest Measures: Tennyson and the Literature of Greece and Rome (Toronto) p. 16. C. Martindale and R.F. Thomas (eds) Classics and the Uses of Reception (Oxford) p. 3. F. Turner (1986) ‘British Politics and the Demise of the Roman Republic’, The Historical Journal, 29, p. 577. P. Vasunia (2009) ‘Virgil and the British Empire, 1760–1880’, Proceedings of the British Academy 155, p. 84.
S. Ambirajan (1999) ‘John Stuart Mill and India’, in M. Moir and L. Zastoupil (eds) J.S. Mill’s Encounter with India (Toronto) p. 222.
For these dominant interpretations see F.M. Turner (1981) The Greek Heritage in Victorian Britain (New Haven) pp. 16–17. Edwards ‘Introduction’ p. 8.
P.B. Shelley (1821) Hellas (London). Consult Shelley (1839) Poetical Works (London) p. 447.
W. Rose (1756) ‘Blackwell’s Memoirs of the Court of Augustus’, Monthly Review, vol. 14, p. 228. W. Mitford (1816) History of Greece (London) vol. 1, p. 10 and vol. 2, p. 47. For Mitford and Grote’s disagreement over Athens see J.T. Roberts (1989) ‘Athenians on the Sceptered Isle’, Classical Journal, vol. 84, no. 3, p. 193. Wm. Russell (1793) History of Ancient Europe, from the Earliest Times to the Subversion of the Western Empire, with a Survey of the Most Important Revolutions in Asia and Africa, in a Series of Letters from a Gentleman to his Son, Intended as an Accompaniment to Dr. Russell’s History of Modern Europe (London) p. 3. In the 1780s and 1790s, see Anonymous (1754) ‘A dissertation upon the nature and intention of Homer’s fables relating to the gods’, Monthly Review, ser. I, vol. 9, pp. 97–102. E. Moody (1790) ‘The Antiquities of Athens…by Stuart and Revett’, Monthly Review, N.S., vol. 2, p. 316. R. Griffiths (1789) ‘The Rudiments of Ancient Architecture by ‘Athenian’ Stuart’, Monthly Review, vol. 81, p. 493. Later, see G. Cornewall Lewis (1850) ‘Grote’s History of Greece’, Edinburgh Review, vol. 91, pp.119–20. R.C. Jebb (1893) The Growth and Influence of Classical Greek Poetry: lectures delivered in 1892 (London) p. 35. J.B. Bury (1900) A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great (London) p. 5. Also J.C. Stobart (1912) The Grandeur that was Rome. A Survey of Roman Culture and Civilization (London) p. 1.
A.L. Rowse (1987) Froude the Historian: Victorian Man of Letters (Gloucester) p. 97. T.W. Heyck (1982) The Transformation of Intellectual Life in Victorian Britain (London) p. 123. F. Furet (1977) ‘Civilization and Barbarism in Gibbon’s History’, in G.W. Bowersock, J. Clive and S.R. Graubard (eds) (Cambridge) p. 159. Armitage (2000) The Ideological Origins of the British Empire (Cambridge) p. 173. See also K.E. Knorr (1968) British Colonial Theories (London) pp. 247, 366. More cautiously P. Burroughs (1999) ‘Imperial Institutions and the Government of Empire’, OHBE, vol. III, The Nineteenth Century (Oxford) pp. 172–4. See also A.P. Thornton (1965) Doctrines of Imperialism (New York) p. 159. Finally, W. R. Louis (1999) ‘Introduction’, in OHBE, vol. V, Historiography (Oxford) p. 7.
J. Mendilow (1985) ‘Merrie England and the Brave New World’, History of European Ideas, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 50, for Carlyle. On the similarities between T. Arnold and E.A. Freeman see De Sanctis (1990) Freeman and European History (Farnborough) p. 93. For more contemporary examples see T. Keightley (1845) History of Greece (London) p. 472. T. Keightley (1848) History of Rome (London) p. 190. C. Merivale (1876) A General History of Rome (London) p. 690, first published between 1850 and 1864, A. Alison (1838) ‘Arnold’s History of Rome’, Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, vol. 44, p. 141. See also E.A. Freeman (1863) A History of Federal Government in Italy and Greece (London) p. 174.
M. Bernal (1994) ‘The Image of Ancient Greece as a tool for colonialism and European hegemony’, in G.C. Bond and A. Gilliam (eds) Social Construction of the Past: Representation as Power (London) p. 123, citing Gladstone.
On Goldsmith, see P. Dixon (1991) Oliver Goldsmith Revisited (Boston).
O. Goldsmith (1781) Roman History from the Foundation of the City of Rome to the Destruction of the Western Empire (London) p. 98. Where Publius Cornelius Scipio (subsequently ‘Africanus’) defeated Hannibal in 201 BC.
Ibid., p. 311.
T. Arnold (1838–43) History of Rome (London) vol. 1, p. 45. And ‘Providence, which designed that Rome should win the Empire of the world.’ Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 406–7. See also Keightley, History of Rome, p. 190.
See for example E.S. Creasy, (1879) The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World (London) pp. 83–4. Merivale, A General History of Rome, p. 127. Published between 1850 and 1862. W.T. Arnold (1879) The Roman System of Provincial Administration (London) p. 8. J.C. Stobart, The Grandeur that was Rome, p. 44.
T. Mommsen, The History of Rome (Berlin, 1854–6, first English translation, by L. Schmitz 1862) p. 31.
Livy, AUC 30.31, trans. C. Edmonds (London, 1850) vol. 3. Polybius Histories 15.9, trans. E. S. Shuckburgh (London, 1889) vol. 2.
Claudian, Stilichonis iii, pp. 150–9. T. Hodgkin (1898) ‘The Fall of the Roman Empire and its lessons for us’, Contemporary Review, vol. 73, p. 60. In his translation: ‘Rome alone has found the spell to charm/The tribes that bowed beneath her conquering arm,/Has given one name to the whole human race,/And clasped and sheltered them in fond embrace;/Mother, not mistress, called her foe her son/And by soft ties made distant countries one./This to her peaceful sceptre all men owe….’.
E. Gibbon (1776, 1781, 1788) The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (London) vol. 1, p. 35. See also W. Rose (1775) ‘The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by E. Gibbon’, Monthly Review, vol. 54, p. 190. Jebb (1893) The Growth and Influence of Classical Greek Poetry: Lectures Delivered in 1892 (London) p. 29. For Gibbon and the Roman Empire compare J. Robertson (1997) ‘Gibbon’s Roman Empire as a universal monarchy’, in R. McKitterick and R. Quinalt (eds) Edward Gibbon and Empire (Cambridge) pp. 247–69, and R. Quinalt (1997) ‘Gibbon and Churchill’ in idem., pp. 317–32.
See M. McCrum (1989) Thomas Arnold Head Master: A Reassessment (Oxford) p. 92. T. Copley (2002) Black Tom, Arnold of Rugby: the Myth and the Man (London) p. 153.
Nowhere was Rome presented as an evangelizing power, bent on expansion for the sake of spreading Christianity. See Edward Caird (1866) ‘The Roman Element in Civilization’, North British Review, vol. 44, o.s., p. 143. Charles Kingsley (1864) The Roman and the Teuton (London) p. 11. Merivale, A General History of Rome, p. 690, and H.F. Pelham (1893) Outlines of Roman History (London) p. 521.
J.R. Seeley (1871) Roman Imperialism and other lectures and essays (Boston) pp. 42, 8. He referred to Caesar’s conquest of Gaul. Seeley was Professor of Latin at University College London, 1863–9. Merivale, General History of Rome, p. 681. Arnold, The Roman System of Provincial Administration, p. 16, 29, & 38–9. J. A. Froude (1879) Caesar, A Sketch (London) p. 341. H.F. Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, p. 462. Hodgkin, ‘The Fall of the Roman Empire and its lessons for us’, p. 60. See also J.A. Symonds (1866) Sketches in Italy and Greece (London) p. 76. R. Burn (1876) Rome and the Campagna (London) p. lxxix, and S.R. Gardiner (1874) A Student’s History of England from the Earliest Times to the Death of King Edward VII (London) p. 12.
J. Gillies (1855) A History of Greece: Its Colonies and Conquests till the Division of the Macedonian Empire (New York) pp. 35, 81, 140. First published in 1786. G. Grote (1846–58) History of Greece (London) vol. 3, p. 367. C. Thirlwall (London, 1835–44) History of Greece 2, p. 95. C.A. Fyffe (1875) History of Greece (New York) p. 36. E. Abbott (1888) History of Greece (London) p. 342.
For an extended discussion of 19th century conceptions of Alexander’s career see C. Hagerman (2009) ‘“In the footsteps of the ‘Macedonian conqueror”: Alexander the Great and British India’, International Journal of the Classical Tradition, vol. 15, nos. 3–4, pp. 44–392, especially pp. 366–79. See also P. Vasunia, (2007) ‘Alexander and Asia: Droysen and Grote’, in H.P. Ray and D.T. Potts (eds) Memory as History: The Legacy of Alexander in Asia (New Delhi).
J. Gillies, A History of Greece, vol. 4, pp. 301–2. See also A. Woodhouselee (1854) Elements of General History (Boston) pp. 186–7, 193–5. First published in 1801, based on lectures dating to 1780. For the original portrait consult Plutarch Moralia: De Alexandri Magni Fortuna aut Virtute, especially 1.5. Mitford, History of Greece, vol. 10, pp. 212, 354, 357, quoting Arrian, Anab Alex. 7.30. Thirlwall, History of Greece, vol. 7, p. 110. For examples of Thirlwall’s influence see E.A. Freeman (1880) ‘Review of Grote’s History of Greece vol. XII’, reprinted in Historical Essays (London) p. 210. William Smith (1850) Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology (London) 118–22. George Carrington, ‘Historical Sketches’ (1869) Aunt Judy’s Magazine, 7, no. 41, p. 273. and A. De Vere (1874) Alexander the Great: a dramatic poem (London) p. vii. For later historical assessments see Percy Gardner (1880) ‘The successors of Alexander and Greek civilization in the East’, Quarterly Review, vol. 149, p. 128 and Bury, A History of Greece, p. 492. J. Williams’ Life of Alexander the Great first published in 1829 had a very long life. See the 1902 edition, pp. xi and 220.
Grote, History of Greece, vol. 12: pp. 83, 87. He left the door open to the possibility that Alexander’s successors had been more successful in Hellenizing his conquests. Grote 12: 90. See also G. Cox (1876) A General History of Greece from the Earliest Period to the Death of Alexander the Great (London) p. 646. K.N. Demetriou (1999) George Grote on Plato and Athenian Democracy: A Study in Classical Reception (New York) argues that Grote’s radical sympathy for democratic Athens ensured his antipathy toward its Macedonian overlords.
C. Neate, Lord Neaves (1863) ‘Lord Mackenzie’s Roman Law’, Blackwood’s Magazine, vol. 93, p. 314. Emphasis added. He was also Rector of St Andrews University and later published The Greek Anthology (London, 1870). Connington’s translation (1866) rendered the whole of this passage as follows: ‘Yours Roman, be the lesson to govern the nations as their lord. This is your destined culture, to impose the settled rule of peace, to spare the humbled and to crush the proud.’ Quoted in Sir Edward Cook (1919) More Literary Recreations (London) p. 58.
E. Bulwer-Lytton (1834) The Last Days of Pompeii (New York) vol. 2, p. 180.
Ibid., n. 1.
J. M. Deem (2005) Bodies from the Ash: Life and Death in Ancient Pompeii (Houghton) p. 25.
T.B. Macaulay (1856) Lays of Ancient Rome (Boston) 50. ‘Horatius’ 27. 217–24. Written in India and published in London in 1842.
Ibid., p. 13.
L. Dowling (1994) Hellenism and Homosexuality in Victorian Oxford (Ithaca) pp. 30, 61.
R. Kipling (1906) Puck of Pook’s Hill (Toronto) 137 ff. For painting in general, see G. Landow (1984) ‘Victorianized Romans: Images of Rome in Victorian Painting” Browning Institute Studies vol. 12 pp. 29–52.
C. M. Yonge (1864) A Book of Golden Deeds (London) p. 67. She also offered an epitome of Macaulay’s version of Horatius’ story.
A.J. Church (2008) Stories from Livy (Chapel Hill) pp. 56–8, 65–7, 99–103, 132–3, 165–8, 170–1. First published in 1882.
C. Kingsley (1880) The Heroes (New York, 1880) p. 21. First published 1855. John Flaxman (1805) The Iliad of Homer (London). Aubrey de Vere, Alexander the Great.
Gibbon, HDFRE, vol. 1, p. 32.
A. Trollope (1870) Commentaries of Caesar, Ancient Classics for English Readers (Philadelphia) p. 29.
Mitford, History of Greece, vol. 10, pp. 212, 354. Thirlwall, History of Greece, vol. 2, p. 234; vol. 7, p. 49.
Anonymous (1796) ‘On Owen’s travels into different parts of Europe…’, Gentleman’s Magazine, vol. 66, p. 933.
Goldsmith, Roman History (abridged) pp. 80, 88, 261, 275. Woodhouselee, Universal History, 3: 32. See also Keightley, History of Rome, p. 190. Arnold, History of Rome, vol. 1, pp. 563–4. Twiss (1837) Epitome of Niebuhr’s History of Rome (Oxford) p. 243. B.G. Niebuhr (1837) Roman History, translated by Julius Hare and Connop Thirlwall third edition (London) vol. 4 p. 165.
Gibbon, HDFRE, vol. 12 p. 431.
R. Betts (1971) ‘The Allusion to Rome in British imperialist thought in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries’, Victorian Studies vol. 15 p. 152. Dowling, ‘Roman Decadence and Victorian Historiography’, p. 581. C. Edwards, ‘Introduction’, Roman Presences, p. 12. Furet, ‘Civilization and Barbarism in Gibbon’s History’, pp. 159–66. J.G.A. Pocock (1977) ‘Between Machiavelli and Hume: Gibbon as Civic Humanist and Philosophical Historian’ in G.W. Bowersock, J. Clive, and S.R. Graubard (eds) Edward Gibbon and the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Cambridge & London) pp. 103–20. Roberts, ‘Athenians on the Sceptered Isle’, p. 198. A. Rogers and R. Hingley ‘Edward Gibbon and Francis Haverfield: The traditions of Imperial Decline’, in M. Bradley (ed.) Classics and Imperialism in the British Empire (Oxford) p. 189–209. N.Vance (1999) ‘Decadence and the subversion of empire’, in C. Edwards (ed.) Roman Presences: Receptions of Rome in European Culture 1789–1945 (Cambridge) pp. 110–124.
Seeley, Roman Imperialism, pp. 33, 35, 78. Bury, History of Greece, p. 338, discussing the fall of the Athenian Empire. In the intervening years see: Goldsmith, Roman History (abridged) pp. 304, 311. Anonymous (1820) ‘On Nougarde’s History of the Roman Revolution’, Monthly Review, n.s, vol. 93, p. 510. Grote, History of Greece, vol. 5, p. 266. Woodhouselee, Universal History, vol. 3 p. 52. S. Maunder (1851) The Treasury of History (London) p. 43. Mommsen, History of Rome, p. 337. In later years see Stobart, The Grandeur that was Rome, pp. 3–4.
A. Ferguson (1844) History of the Progress and Termination of the Roman Republic, abridged edition (Cheapside) pp. 2–3. e.g. Thomas Dyer (1867) The Ruins of Pompeii (London) p. 113. Seeley, Roman Imperialism, pp. 22, 31.
E.g. Keightley, History of Rome, p. 287. He stressed the example of Verres, who was impeached for his rapacious administration of Sicily in the first century BC. Mommsen, History of Rome, p. 337. At the end of our period, see, J.M Robertson (1900) Patriotism and Empire (London) pp. 154–7. Cited in N. Vance (1997) The Victorians and Ancient Rome (Oxford) p. 235.
Goldsmith, Roman History (abridged), pp. 104, 311. Woodhouselee, Universal History, vol. 2, pp. 22, 82. Anon. ‘Nougarde’s History of the Roman Revolution’, p. 510. He quotes Juvenal (Sat. vi. 292). Gilbert Ramsay’s 1918 translation for the Loeb Classical library renders this passage as: ‘Luxury, more deadly than any foe, has laid her hand upon us and avenges a conquered world.’ S. Maunder (1851) Treasury of History (London) p. 43.
Grote, A History of Greece, vol. 12, p. 39. vol. 12, pp. 22, 85–7. See also, Maunder, Treasury of History, 43. Woodhouselee, Universal History, vol. 2, p. 22.
Gibbon, HDFRE, vol. 1 p. 27.
Creasy (1848) ‘The six decisive battles…’, Bentley’s Miscellany, vol. 23, p. 53. See also, Keightley, History of Rome, p. 287. Grote, History of Greece, vol. 12, p. 22. Seeley, Roman Imperialism, p. 33. E. Curtius, History of Greece, p. 302.
O. Goldsmith (1774) Grecian History: From the Earliest Date to the Death of Alexander the Great (Dublin) p. 53. Grote, History of Greece, vol. 5, p. 321. E.S. Creasy, The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World, p. 30. G. Cox (1874) History of Greece (London) vol. 1, p. 242. My emphasis. See also C.A. Fyffe (1875) History of Greece (New York) p. 60. E.A. Freeman (1893) Studies of Travel, Greece (London) pp. 53, 58. Emphasis added.
M. Bernal (1994) ‘The Image of Ancient Greece as a tool for colonialism and European hegemony’, in G.C. Bond and A. Gilliam (eds) Social Construction of the Past: Representation as Power (London), p. 126. Hingley (2001) ‘Introduction’ Images of Rome (Portsmouth) pp. 7, 9. J. Majeed, ‘Comparativism and references to Rome’, pp. 90, 104–6. Reid, ‘Cromer and the Classics’, pp. 1–2. See also, M. Wyke and M. Biddiss ‘Introduction’ in Wyke and Biddis (eds) The Uses and Abuses of Antiquity (Bern) p. 13. P. Vasunia (2003) ‘Hellenism and Empire: Reading Edward Said’, Parallax, vol. 9, no.4 pp. 88–97.
Gibbon, HDFRE, vol. 1, p. 27. For Gibbon’s investments, see Vasunia, ‘Virgil and the British Empire’, p. 86. For Gibbon’s conviction that history should instruct, see C. Kelly (1997) ‘A Grand Tour: reading Gibbon’s Decline and Fall’, Greece and Rome, vol. 44, no. 1, p. 41.
Gibbon, HDFRE, vol. 1, p. 32.
Goldsmith, Roman History, p. 37. Woodhouselee, Universal History, vol. 4 p.1. Dr Arnold, History of the Later Roman Commonwealth, vol. 1 p. 33. Maunder, Treasury of History, p. 103. Seeley, Roman Imperialism, pp. 8, 35, 42. W.B. Donne (1869) ‘Caesarian Rome’, Edinburgh Review, vol. 129, pp. 92–3. Trollope, Commentaries of Caesar, p. 29. S.R. Gardiner (1874) A Student’s History of England from the earliest times to the death of King Edward VII (London), pp. 12, 19. F.W. Newman (1874) ‘The moral character of Roman conquest’, Fraser’s Magazine, vol. 89, o.s., p. 588. Merivale, A General History of Rome, p. 679. Fyffe, History of Greece, p.1. W.T. Arnold, The Roman System of Provincial Administration, p. 16. Froude, Caesar, a Sketch, pp. 341, 363. Jebb, The Growth and Influence of Classical Greek Poetry, p. 29. Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, p. 462.
In general see J.M. MacKenzie (ed.) (1986) Imperialism and Popular Culture (Manchester, 1986). For a contrary view see B. Porter (2007) The Absent-Minded Imperialists (Oxford).
See R. Hingley (2001) ‘Introduction’ Images of Rome: perceptions of ancient Rome in Europe and America in the modern age (Portsmouth) pp. 145, 162. He acknowledged that Haverfield’s use of classical discourse may have been ‘unconscious’. See also E. Adler (2008) ‘Late Victorian and Edwardian Views of Rome and the Nature of “Defensive Imperialism”’, International Journal of the Classical Tradition, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 208, 210.
W. Robertson (1804) An Historical Disquisition Concerning the Knowledge which the Ancients had of India (London) pp. 256–7.
Arnold, The History of Rome, vol.1, p. vii.
G.C. Lewis (1850) ‘Grote’s History of Greece’, Edinburgh Review, vol. 91, p. 121.
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Hagerman, C.A. (2013). Classical Discourse: Imperial Dimensions. In: Britain’s Imperial Muse. Britain and the World. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137316424_3
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